December 12, 2016
Editors:
This document is a very early draft. It is inkorrekt, incompleat, and pµÃoorly formatted.
Had it been an open source (code) project, this would have been release 0.7.
Copying, use, modification, and creation of derivative works from this project is licensed under an MIT-style license.
Contributing to this project requires agreeing to a Contributor License. See the accompanying [LICENSE](LICENSE) file for details.
We make this project available to friendly users
to use, copy, modify, and derive from, hoping for constructive input.
Comments and suggestions for improvements are most welcome. We plan to modify and extend this document as our understanding improves and the language and the set of available libraries improve. When commenting, please note [the introduction](#S-introduction) that outlines our aims and general approach. The list of contributors is [here](#SS-ack).
Problems:
You can [read an explanation of the scope and structure of this Guide](#S-abstract) or just jump straight in:
Supporting sections:
or look at a specific language feature
class](#S-class)class](#SS-hier)for](#S-???)inline](#S-class)public, private, and protected](#S-???)static_assert](#S-???)struct](#S-class)template](#S-???)unsigned](#S-???)virtual](#SS-hier)Definitions of terms used to express and discuss the rules, that are not language-technical, but refer to design and programming techniques
This document is a set of guidelines for using C++ well.
The aim of this document is to help people to use modern C++ effectively.
By modern C++
we mean C++11 and C++14 (and soon C++17).
In other words, what would you like your code to look like in 5 years' time, given that you can start now? In 10 years' time?
The guidelines are focused on relatively higher-level issues, such as interfaces, resource management, memory management, and concurrency. Such rules affect application architecture and library design. Following the rules will lead to code that is statically type safe, has no resource leaks, and catches many more programming logic errors than is common in code today. And it will run fast -- you can afford to do things right.
We are less concerned with low-level issues, such as naming conventions and indentation style. However, no topic that can help a programmer is out of bounds.
Our initial set of rules emphasizes safety (of various forms) and simplicity. They may very well be too strict. We expect to have to introduce more exceptions to better accommodate real-world needs. We also need more rules.
You will find some of the rules contrary to your expectations or even contrary to your experience. If we haven't suggested you change your coding style in any way, we have failed! Please try to verify or disprove rules! In particular, we'd really like to have some of our rules backed up with measurements or better examples.
You will find some of the rules obvious or even trivial. Please remember that one purpose of a guideline is to help someone who is less experienced or coming from a different background or language to get up to speed.
Many of the rules are designed to be supported by an analysis tool. Violations of rules will be flagged with references (or links) to the relevant rule. We do not expect you to memorize all the rules before trying to write code. One way of thinking about these guidelines is as a specification for tools that happens to be readable by humans.
The rules are meant for gradual introduction into a code base. We plan to build tools for that and hope others will too.
Comments and suggestions for improvements are most welcome. We plan to modify and extend this document as our understanding improves and the language and the set of available libraries improve.
This is a set of core guidelines for modern C++, C++14, taking likely future enhancements and ISO Technical Specifications (TSs) into account. The aim is to help C++ programmers to write simpler, more efficient, more maintainable code.
Introduction summary:
All C++ programmers. This includes [programmers who might consider C](#S-cpl).
The purpose of this document is to help developers to adopt modern C++ (C++11, C++14, and soon C++17) and to achieve a more uniform style across code bases.
We do not suffer the delusion that every one of these rules can be effectively applied to every code base. Upgrading old systems is hard. However, we do believe that a program that uses a rule is less error-prone and more maintainable than one that does not. Often, rules also lead to faster/easier initial development.
As far as we can tell, these rules lead to code that performs as well or better than older, more conventional techniques; they are meant to follow the zero-overhead principle (what you don't use, you don't pay for
or when you use an abstraction mechanism appropriately, you get at least as good performance as if you had handcoded using lower-level language constructs
).
Consider these rules ideals for new code, opportunities to exploit when working on older code, and try to approximate these ideals as closely as feasible.
Remember:
Take the time to understand the implications of a guideline rule on your program.
These guidelines are designed according to the subset of superset
principle ([Stroustrup05](#Stroustrup05)).
They do not simply define a subset of C++ to be used (for reliability, safety, performance, or whatever).
Instead, they strongly recommend the use of a few simple extensions
([library components](#S-gsl))
that make the use of the most error-prone features of C++ redundant, so that they can be banned (in our set of rules).
The rules emphasize static type safety and resource safety.
For that reason, they emphasize possibilities for range checking, for avoiding dereferencing nullptr, for avoiding dangling pointers, and the systematic use of exceptions (via RAII).
Partly to achieve that and partly to minimize obscure code as a source of errors, the rules also emphasize simplicity and the hiding of necessary complexity behind well-specified interfaces.
Many of the rules are prescriptive.
We are uncomfortable with rules that simply state don't do that!
without offering an alternative.
One consequence of that is that some rules can be supported only by heuristics, rather than precise and mechanically verifiable checks.
Other rules articulate general principles. For these more general rules, more detailed and specific rules provide partial checking.
These guidelines address the core of C++ and its use. We expect that most large organizations, specific application areas, and even large projects will need further rules, possibly further restrictions, and further library support. For example, hard real-time programmers typically can't use free store (dynamic memory) freely and will be restricted in their choice of libraries. We encourage the development of such more specific rules as addenda to these core guidelines. Build your ideal small foundation library and use that, rather than lowering your level of programming to glorified assembly code.
The rules are designed to allow [gradual adoption](#S-modernizing).
Some rules aim to increase various forms of safety while others aim to reduce the likelihood of accidents, many do both. The guidelines aimed at preventing accidents often ban perfectly legal C++. However, when there are two ways of expressing an idea and one has shown itself a common source of errors and the other has not, we try to guide programmers towards the latter.
The rules are not intended to be minimal or orthogonal. In particular, general rules can be simple, but unenforceable. Also, it is often hard to understand the implications of a general rule. More specialized rules are often easier to understand and to enforce, but without general rules, they would just be a long list of special cases. We provide rules aimed at helping novices as well as rules supporting expert use. Some rules can be completely enforced, but others are based on heuristics.
These rules are not meant to be read serially, like a book. You can browse through them using the links. However, their main intended use is to be targets for tools. That is, a tool looks for violations and the tool returns links to violated rules. The rules then provide reasons, examples of potential consequences of the violation, and suggested remedies.
These guidelines are not intended to be a substitute for a tutorial treatment of C++. If you need a tutorial for some given level of experience, see [the references](#S-references).
This is not a guide on how to convert old C++ code to more modern code. It is meant to articulate ideas for new code in a concrete fashion. However, see [the modernization section](#S-modernizing) for some possible approaches to modernizing/rejuvenating/upgrading. Importantly, the rules support gradual adoption: It is typically infeasible to convert all of a large code base at once.
These guidelines are not meant to be complete or exact in every language-technical detail. For the final word on language definition issues, including every exception to general rules and every feature, see the ISO C++ standard.
The rules are not intended to force you to write in an impoverished subset of C++.
They are emphatically not meant to define a, say, Java-like subset of C++.
They are not meant to define a single one true C++
language.
We value expressiveness and uncompromised performance.
The rules are not value-neutral. They are meant to make code simpler and more correct/safer than most existing C++ code, without loss of performance. They are meant to inhibit perfectly valid C++ code that correlates with errors, spurious complexity, and poor performance.
The rules are not perfect.
A rule can do harm by prohibiting something that is useful in a given situation.
A rule can do harm by failing to prohibit something that enables a serious error in a given situation.
A rule can do a lot of harm by being vague, ambiguous, unenforceable, or by enabling every solution to a problem.
It is impossible to completely meet the do no harm
criteria.
Instead, our aim is the less ambitious: Do the most good for most programmers
;
if you cannot live with a rule, object to it, ignore it, but don't water it down until it becomes meaningless.
Also, suggest an improvement.
Rules with no enforcement are unmanageable for large code bases. Enforcement of all rules is possible only for a small weak set of rules or for a specific user community.
So, we need subsetting to meet a variety of needs.
We want guidelines that help a lot of people, make code more uniform, and strongly encourage people to modernize their code. We want to encourage best practices, rather than leave all to individual choices and management pressures. The ideal is to use all rules; that gives the greatest benefits.
This adds up to quite a few dilemmas.
We try to resolve those using tools.
Each rule has an Enforcement section listing ideas for enforcement.
Enforcement might be done by code review, by static analysis, by compiler, or by run-time checks.
Wherever possible, we prefer mechanical
checking (humans are slow, inaccurate, and bore easily) and static checking.
Run-time checks are suggested only rarely where no alternative exists; we do not want to introduce distributed fat
.
Where appropriate, we label a rule (in the Enforcement sections) with the name of groups of related rules (called profiles
).
A rule can be part of several profiles, or none.
For a start, we have a few profiles corresponding to common needs (desires, ideals):
T as a U through casts, unions, or varargs)delete or multiple delete) and no access to invalid objects (dereferencing nullptr, using a dangling reference).The profiles are intended to be used by tools, but also serve as an aid to the human reader. We do not limit our comment in the Enforcement sections to things we know how to enforce; some comments are mere wishes that might inspire some tool builder.
Tools that implement these rules shall respect the following syntax to explicitly suppress a rule:
[[suppress(tag)]]
where tag
is the anchor name of the item where the Enforcement rule appears (e.g., for [C.134](#Rh-public) it is Rh-public
), the
name of a profile group-of-rules (type
, bounds
, or lifetime
),
or a specific rule in a profile ([type.4](#Pro-type-cstylecast), or [bounds.2](#Pro-bounds-arrayindex)).
Each rule (guideline, suggestion) can have several parts:
newnumber. We leave gaps in the numbering to minimize
disruptionwhen we add or remove rules.
don't do thisrules
mechanically
Some rules are hard to check mechanically, but they all meet the minimal criteria that an expert programmer can spot many violations without too much trouble.
We hope that mechanical
tools will improve with time to approximate what such an expert programmer notices.
Also, we assume that the rules will be refined over time to make them more precise and checkable.
A rule is aimed at being simple, rather than carefully phrased to mention every alternative and special case. Such information is found in the Alternative paragraphs and the [Discussion](#S-discussion) sections. If you don't understand a rule or disagree with it, please visit its Discussion. If you feel that a discussion is missing or incomplete, enter an Issue explaining your concerns and possibly a corresponding PR.
This is not a language manual. It is meant to be helpful, rather than complete, fully accurate on technical details, or a guide to existing code. Recommended information sources can be found in [the references](#S-references).
Supporting sections:
These sections are not orthogonal.
Each section (e.g., P
for Philosophy
) and each subsection (e.g., C.hier
for Class Hierarchies (OOP)
) have an abbreviation for ease of searching and reference.
The main section abbreviations are also used in rule numbers (e.g., C.11
for Make concrete types regular
).
The rules in this section are very general.
Philosophy rules summary:
Philosophical rules are generally not mechanically checkable. However, individual rules reflecting these philosophical themes are. Without a philosophical basis the more concrete/specific/checkable rules lack rationale.
Compilers don't read comments (or design documents) and neither do many programmers (consistently). What is expressed in code has defined semantics and can (in principle) be checked by compilers and other tools.
class Date {
// ...
public:
Month month() const; // do
int month(); // don't
// ...
};
The first declaration of month is explicit about returning a Month and about not modifying the state of the Date object.
The second version leaves the reader guessing and opens more possibilities for uncaught bugs.
void f(vector<string>& v)
{
string val;
cin >> val;
// ...
int index = -1; // bad
for (int i = 0; i < v.size(); ++i)
if (v[i] == val) {
index = i;
break;
}
// ...
}
That loop is a restricted form of std::find.
A much clearer expression of intent would be:
void f(vector<string>& v)
{
string val;
cin >> val;
// ...
auto p = find(begin(v), end(v), val); // better
// ...
}
A well-designed library expresses intent (what is to be done, rather than just how something is being done) far better than direct use of language features.
A C++ programmer should know the basics of the standard library, and use it where appropriate. Any programmer should know the basics of the foundation libraries of the project being worked on, and use them appropriately. Any programmer using these guidelines should know the [guideline support library](#S-gsl), and use it appropriately.
change_speed(double s); // bad: what does s signify?
// ...
change_speed(2.3);
A better approach is to be explicit about the meaning of the double (new speed or delta on old speed?) and the unit used:
change_speed(Speed s); // better: the meaning of s is specified
// ...
change_speed(2.3); // error: no unit
change_speed(23m / 10s); // meters per second
We could have accepted a plain (unit-less) double as a delta, but that would have been error-prone.
If we wanted both absolute speed and deltas, we would have defined a Delta type.
Very hard in general.
const consistently (check if member functions modify their object; check if functions modify arguments passed by pointer or reference)This is a set of guidelines for writing ISO Standard C++.
There are environments where extensions are necessary, e.g., to access system resources. In such cases, localize the use of necessary extensions and control their use with non-core Coding Guidelines. If possible, build interfaces that encapsulate the extensions so they can be turned off or compiled away on systems that do not support those extensions.
Extensions often do not have rigorously defined semantics. Even extensions that are common and implemented by multiple compilers may have slightly different behaviors and edge case behavior as a direct result of not having a rigorous standard definition. With sufficient use of any such extension, expected portability will be impacted.
Using valid ISO C++ does not guarantee portability (let alone correctness).
Avoid dependence on undefined behavior (e.g., [undefined order of evaluation](#Res-order))
and be aware of constructs with implementation defined meaning (e.g., sizeof(int)).
There are environments where restrictions on use of standard C++ language or library features are necessary, e.g., to avoid dynamic memory allocation as required by aircraft control software standards. In such cases, control their (dis)use with an extension of these Coding Guidelines customized to the specific environment.
Use an up-to-date C++ compiler (currently C++11 or C++14) with a set of options that do not accept extensions.
Unless the intent of some code is stated (e.g., in names or comments), it is impossible to tell whether the code does what it is supposed to do.
int i = 0;
while (i < v.size()) {
// ... do something with v[i] ...
}
The intent of just
looping over the elements of v is not expressed here. The implementation detail of an index is exposed (so that it might be misused), and i outlives the scope of the loop, which may or may not be intended. The reader cannot know from just this section of code.
Better:
for (const auto& x : v) { /* do something with x */ }
Now, there is no explicit mention of the iteration mechanism, and the loop operates on a reference to const elements so that accidental modification cannot happen. If modification is desired, say so:
for (auto& x : v) { /* do something with x */ }
Sometimes better still, use a named algorithm:
for_each(v, [](int x) { /* do something with x */ });
for_each(par, v, [](int x) { /* do something with x */ });
The last variant makes it clear that we are not interested in the order in which the elements of v are handled.
A programmer should be familiar with
Alternative formulation: Say what should be done, rather than just how it should be done.
Some language constructs express intent better than others.
If two ints are meant to be the coordinates of a 2D point, say so:
draw_line(int, int, int, int); // obscure
draw_line(Point, Point); // clearer
Look for common patterns for which there are better alternatives
for loops vs. range-for loopsf(T*, int) interfaces vs. f(span<T>) interfacesnew and deleteThere is a huge scope for cleverness and semi-automated program transformation.
Ideally, a program would be completely statically (compile-time) type safe. Unfortunately, that is not possible. Problem areas:
These areas are sources of serious problems (e.g., crashes and security violations). We try to provide alternative techniques.
We can ban, restrain, or detect the individual problem categories separately, as required and feasible for individual programs. Always suggest an alternative. For example:
variant (in C++17)span (from the GSL)spannarrow or narrow_cast (from the GSL) where they are necessaryCode clarity and performance. You don't need to write error handlers for errors caught at compile time.
// Int is an alias used for integers
int bits = 0; // don't: avoidable code
for (Int i = 1; i; i <<= 1)
++bits;
if (bits < 32)
cerr << "Int too small\n"
This example is easily simplified
// Int is an alias used for integers
static_assert(sizeof(Int) >= 4); // do: compile-time check
void read(int* p, int n); // read max n integers into *p
int a[100];
read(a, 1000); // bad
better
void read(span<int> r); // read into the range of integers r
int a[100];
read(a); // better: let the compiler figure out the number of elements
Alternative formulation: Don't postpone to run time what can be done well at compile time.
Leaving hard-to-detect errors in a program is asking for crashes and bad results.
Ideally we catch all errors (that are not errors in the programmer's logic) at either compile-time or run-time. It is impossible to catch all errors at compile time and often not affordable to catch all remaining errors at run time. However, we should endeavor to write programs that in principle can be checked, given sufficient resources (analysis programs, run-time checks, machine resources, time).
// separately compiled, possibly dynamically loaded
extern void f(int* p);
void g(int n)
{
// bad: the number of elements is not passed to f()
f(new int[n]);
}
Here, a crucial bit of information (the number of elements) has been so thoroughly obscured
that static analysis is probably rendered infeasible and dynamic checking can be very difficult when f() is part of an ABI so that we cannot instrument
that pointer. We could embed helpful information into the free store, but that requires global changes to a system and maybe to the compiler. What we have here is a design that makes error detection very hard.
We can of course pass the number of elements along with the pointer:
// separately compiled, possibly dynamically loaded
extern void f2(int* p, int n);
void g2(int n)
{
f2(new int[n], m); // bad: a wrong number of elements can be passed to f()
}
Passing the number of elements as an argument is better (and far more common) than just passing the pointer and relying on some (unstated) convention for knowing or discovering the number of elements. However (as shown), a simple typo can introduce a serious error. The connection between the two arguments of f2() is conventional, rather than explicit.
Also, it is implicit that f2() is supposed to delete its argument (or did the caller make a second mistake?).
The standard library resource management pointers fail to pass the size when they point to an object:
// separately compiled, possibly dynamically loaded
// NB: this assumes the calling code is ABI-compatible, using a
// compatible C++ compiler and the same stdlib implementation
extern void f3(unique_ptr<int[]>, int n);
void g3(int n)
{
f3(make_unique<int[]>(n), m); // bad: pass ownership and size separately
}
We need to pass the pointer and the number of elements as an integral object:
extern void f4(vector<int>&); // separately compiled, possibly dynamically loaded
extern void f4(span<int>); // separately compiled, possibly dynamically loaded
// NB: this assumes the calling code is ABI-compatible, using a
// compatible C++ compiler and the same stdlib implementation
void g3(int n)
{
vector<int> v(n);
f4(v); // pass a reference, retain ownership
f4(span<int>{v}); // pass a view, retain ownership
}
This design carries the number of elements along as an integral part of an object, so that errors are unlikely and dynamic (run-time) checking is always feasible, if not always affordable.
How do we transfer both ownership and all information needed for validating use?
vector<int> f5(int n) // OK: move
{
vector<int> v(n);
// ... initialize v ...
return v;
}
unique_ptr<int[]> f6(int n) // bad: loses n
{
auto p = make_unique<int[]>(n);
// ... initialize *p ...
return p;
}
owner<int*> f7(int n) // bad: loses n and we might forget to delete
{
owner<int*> p = new int[n];
// ... initialize *p ...
return p;
}
free-styleoptions
Avoid mysterious
crashes.
Avoid errors leading to (possibly unrecognized) wrong results.
void increment1(int* p, int n) // bad: error prone
{
for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) ++p[i];
}
void use1(int m)
{
const int n = 10;
int a[n] = {};
// ...
increment1(a, m); // maybe typo, maybe m <= n is supposed
// but assume that m == 20
// ...
}
Here we made a small error in use1 that will lead to corrupted data or a crash.
The (pointer, count)-style interface leaves increment1() with no realistic way of defending itself against out-of-range errors.
Assuming that we could check subscripts for out of range access, the error would not be discovered until p[10] was accessed.
We could check earlier and improve the code:
void increment2(span<int> p)
{
for (int& x : p) ++x;
}
void use2(int m)
{
const int n = 10;
int a[n] = {};
// ...
increment2({a, m}); // maybe typo, maybe m <= n is supposed
// ...
}
Now, m<=n can be checked at the point of call (early) rather than later.
If all we had was a typo so that we meant to use n as the bound, the code could be further simplified (eliminating the possibility of an error):
void use3(int m)
{
const int n = 10;
int a[n] = {};
// ...
increment2(a); // the number of elements of a need not be repeated
// ...
}
Don't repeatedly check the same value. Don't pass structured data as strings:
Date read_date(istream& is); // read date from istream
Date extract_date(const string& s); // extract date from string
void user1(const string& date) // manipulate date
{
auto d = extract_date(date);
// ...
}
void user2()
{
Date d = read_date(cin);
// ...
user1(d.to_string());
// ...
}
The date is validated twice (by the Date constructor) and passed as a character string (unstructured data).
Excess checking can be costly.
There are cases where checking early is dumb because you may not ever need the value, or may only need part of the value that is more easily checked than the whole. Similarly, don't add validity checks that change the asymptotic behavior of your interface (e.g., don't add a O(n) check to an interface with an average complexity of O(1)).
class Jet { // Physics says: e * e < x * x + y * y + z * z
float x;
float y;
float z;
float e;
public:
Jet(float x, float y, float z, float e)
:x(x), y(y), z(z), e(e)
{
// Should I check here that the values are physically meaningful?
}
float m() const
{
// Should I handle the degenerate case here?
return sqrt(x * x + y * y + z * z - e * e);
}
???
};
The physical law for a jet (e * e < x * x + y * y + z * z) is not an invariant because of the possibility for measurement errors.
???
Even a slow growth in resources will, over time, exhaust the availability of those resources. This is particularly important for long-running programs, but is an essential piece of responsible programming behavior.
void f(char* name)
{
FILE* input = fopen(name, "r");
// ...
if (something) return; // bad: if something == true, a file handle is leaked
// ...
fclose(input);
}
Prefer [RAII](#Rr-raii):
void f(char* name)
{
ifstream input {name};
// ...
if (something) return; // OK: no leak
// ...
}
See also: [The resource management section](#S-resource)
A leak is colloquially anything that isn't cleaned up.
The more important classification is anything that can no longer be cleaned up.
For example, allocating an object on the heap and then losing the last pointer that points to that allocation.
This rule should not be taken as requiring that allocations within long-lived objects must be returned during program shutdown.
For example, relying on system guaranteed cleanup such as file closing and memory deallocation upon process shutdown can simplify code.
However, relying on abstractions that implicitly clean up can be as simple, and often safer.
Enforcing [the lifetime profile](#In.force) eliminates leaks.
When combined with resource safety provided by [RAII](#Rr-raii), it eliminates the need for garbage collection
(by generating no garbage).
Combine this with enforcement of [the type and bounds profiles](#In.force) and you get complete type- and resource-safety, guaranteed by tools.
owner from [the GSL](#S-gsl).new and deletefopen, malloc, and strdup)This is C++.
Time and space that you spend well to achieve a goal (e.g., speed of development, resource safety, or simplification of testing) is not wasted.
Another benefit of striving for efficiency is that the process forces you to understand the problem in more depth.
- Alex Stepanov
struct X {
char ch;
int i;
string s;
char ch2;
X& operator=(const X& a);
X(const X&);
};
X waste(const char* p)
{
if (p == nullptr) throw Nullptr_error{};
int n = strlen(p);
auto buf = new char[n];
if (buf == nullptr) throw Allocation_error{};
for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) buf[i] = p[i];
// ... manipulate buffer ...
X x;
x.ch = 'a';
x.s = string(n); // give x.s space for *p
for (int i = 0; i < x.s.size(); ++i) x.s[i] = buf[i]; // copy buf into x.s
delete buf;
return x;
}
void driver()
{
X x = waste("Typical argument");
// ...
}
Yes, this is a caricature, but we have seen every individual mistake in production code, and worse.
Note that the layout of X guarantees that at least 6 bytes (and most likely more) are wasted.
The spurious definition of copy operations disables move semantics so that the return operation is slow
(please note that the Return Value Optimization, RVO, is not guaranteed here).
The use of new and delete for buf is redundant; if we really needed a local string, we should use a local string.
There are several more performance bugs and gratuitous complication.
void lower(zstring s)
{
for (int i = 0; i < strlen(s); ++i) s[i] = tolower(s[i]);
}
Yes, this is an example from production code. We leave it to the reader to figure out what's wasted.
An individual example of waste is rarely significant, and where it is significant, it is typically easily eliminated by an expert. However, waste spread liberally across a code base can easily be significant and experts are not always as available as we would like. The aim of this rule (and the more specific rules that support it) is to eliminate most waste related to the use of C++ before it happens. After that, we can look at waste related to algorithms and requirements, but that is beyond the scope of these guidelines.
Many more specific rules aim at the overall goals of simplicity and elimination of gratuitous waste.
It is easier to reason about constants than about variables. Something immutable cannot change unexpectedly. Sometimes immutability enables better optimization. You can't have a data race on a constant.
See [Con: Constants and Immutability](#S-const)
Messy code is more likely to hide bugs and harder to write. A good interface is easier and safer to use. Messy, low-level code breeds more such code.
int sz = 100;
int* p = (int*) malloc(sizeof(int) * sz);
int count = 0;
// ...
for (;;) {
// ... read an int into x, exit loop if end of file is reached ...
// ... check that x is valid ...
if (count == sz)
p = (int*) realloc(p, sizeof(int) * sz * 2);
p[count++] = x;
// ...
}
This is low-level, verbose, and error-prone.
For example, we forgot
to test for memory exhaustion.
Instead, we could use vector:
vector<int> v;
v.reserve(100);
// ...
for (int x; cin >> x; ) {
// ... check that x is valid ...
v.push_back(x);
}
The standards library and the GSL are examples of this philosophy.
For example, instead of messing with the arrays, unions, cast, tricky lifetime issues, gsl::owner, etc.
that are needed to implement key abstractions, such as vector, span, lock_guard, and future, we use the libraries
designed and implemented by people with more time and expertise than we usually have.
Similarly, we can and should design and implement more specialized libraries, rather than leaving the users (often ourselves)
with the challenge of repeatedly getting low-level code well.
This is a variant of the [subset of superset principle](#R0) that underlies these guidelines.
messy codesuch as complex pointer manipulation and casting outside the implementation of abstractions.
An interface is a contract between two parts of a program. Precisely stating what is expected of a supplier of a service and a user of that service is essential. Having good (easy-to-understand, encouraging efficient use, not error-prone, supporting testing, etc.) interfaces is probably the most important single aspect of code organization.
Interface rule summary:
Expects() for expressing preconditions](#Ri-expects)Ensures() for expressing postconditions](#Ri-ensures)T*)](#Ri-raw)not_null](#Ri-nullptr)See also
Correctness. Assumptions not stated in an interface are easily overlooked and hard to test.
Controlling the behavior of a function through a global (namespace scope) variable (a call mode) is implicit and potentially confusing. For example:
int rnd(double d)
{
return (rnd_up) ? ceil(d) : d; // don't: "invisible" dependency
}
It will not be obvious to a caller that the meaning of two calls of rnd(7.2) might give different results.
Sometimes we control the details of a set of operations by an environment variable, e.g., normal vs. verbose output or debug vs. optimized. The use of a non-local control is potentially confusing, but controls only implementation details of otherwise fixed semantics.
Reporting through non-local variables (e.g., errno) is easily ignored. For example:
// don't: no test of printf's return value
fprintf(connection, "logging: %d %d %d\n", x, y, s);
What if the connection goes down so that no logging output is produced? See I.??.
Alternative: Throw an exception. An exception cannot be ignored.
Alternative formulation: Avoid passing information across an interface through non-local or implicit state.
Note that non-const member functions pass information to other member functions through their object's state.
Alternative formulation: An interface should be a function or a set of functions. Functions can be template functions and sets of functions can be classes or class templates.
Non-const global variables hide dependencies and make the dependencies subject to unpredictable changes.
struct Data {
// ... lots of stuff ...
} data; // non-const data
void compute() // don't
{
// ... use data ...
}
void output() // don't
{
// ... use data ...
}
Who else might modify data?
Global constants are useful.
The rule against global variables applies to namespace scope variables as well.
Alternative: If you use global (more generally namespace scope) data to avoid copying, consider passing the data as an object by reference to const.
Another solution is to define the data as the state of some object and the operations as member functions.
Warning: Beware of data races: If one thread can access nonlocal data (or data passed by reference) while another thread executes the callee, we can have a data race. Every pointer or reference to mutable data is a potential data race.
You cannot have a race condition on immutable data.
References: See the [rules for calling functions](#SS-call).
(Simple) Report all non-const variables declared at namespace scope.
Singletons are basically complicated global objects in disguise.
class Singleton {
// ... lots of stuff to ensure that only one Singleton object is created,
// that it is initialized properly, etc.
};
There are many variants of the singleton idea. That's part of the problem.
If you don't want a global object to change, declare it const or constexpr.
You can use the simplest singleton
(so simple that it is often not considered a singleton) to get initialization on first use, if any:
X& myX()
{
static X my_x {3};
return my_x;
}
This is one of the most effective solutions to problems related to initialization order. In a multi-threaded environment the initialization of the static object does not introduce a race condition (unless you carelessly access a shared object from within its constructor).
Note that the initialization of a local static does not imply a race condition.
However, if the destruction of X involves an operation that needs to be synchronized we must use a less simple solution.
For example:
X& myX()
{
static auto p = new X {3};
return *p; // potential leak
}
Now someone has to delete that object in some suitably thread-safe way.
That's error-prone, so we don't use that technique unless
myX is in multithreaded code,X object needs to be destroyed (e.g., because it releases a resource), andX's destructor's code needs to be synchronized.If you, as many do, define a singleton as a class for which only one object is created, functions like myX are not singletons, and this useful technique is not an exception to the no-singleton rule.
Very hard in general.
singleton.Types are the simplest and best documentation, have well-defined meaning, and are guaranteed to be checked at compile time. Also, precisely typed code is often optimized better.
Consider:
void pass(void* data); // void* is suspicious
Now the callee has to cast the data pointer (back) to a correct type to use it. That is error-prone and often verbose.
Avoid void*, especially in interfaces.
Consider using a variant or a pointer to base instead.
Alternative: Often, a template parameter can eliminate the void* turning it into a T* or T&.
For generic code these Ts can be general or concept constrained template parameters.
Consider:
void draw_rect(int, int, int, int); // great opportunities for mistakes
draw_rect(p.x, p.y, 10, 20); // what does 10, 20 mean?
An int can carry arbitrary forms of information, so we must guess about the meaning of the four ints.
Most likely, the first two are an x,y coordinate pair, but what are the last two?
Comments and parameter names can help, but we could be explicit:
void draw_rectangle(Point top_left, Point bottom_right);
void draw_rectangle(Point top_left, Size height_width);
draw_rectangle(p, Point{10, 20}); // two corners
draw_rectangle(p, Size{10, 20}); // one corner and a (height, width) pair
Obviously, we cannot catch all errors through the static type system (e.g., the fact that a first argument is supposed to be a top-left point is left to convention (naming and comments)).
In the following example, it is not clear from the interface what time_to_blink means: Seconds? Milliseconds?
void blink_led(int time_to_blink) // bad -- the unit is ambiguous
{
// ...
// do something with time_to_blink
// ...
}
void use()
{
blink_led(2);
}
std::chrono::duration types (C++11) helps making the unit of time duration explicit.
void blink_led(milliseconds time_to_blink) // good -- the unit is explicit
{
// ...
// do something with time_to_blink
// ...
}
void use()
{
blink_led(1500ms);
}
The function can also be written in such a way that it will accept any time duration unit.
template<class rep, class period>
void blink_led(duration<rep, period> time_to_blink) // good -- accepts any unit
{
// assuming that millisecond is the smallest relevant unit
auto milliseconds_to_blink = duration_cast<milliseconds>(time_to_blink);
// ...
// do something with milliseconds_to_blink
// ...
}
void use()
{
blink_led(2s);
blink_led(1500ms);
}
void* as a parameter or return type.Arguments have meaning that may constrain their proper use in the callee.
Consider:
double sqrt(double x);
Here x must be nonnegative. The type system cannot (easily and naturally) express that, so we must use other means. For example:
double sqrt(double x); // x must be nonnegative
Some preconditions can be expressed as assertions. For example:
double sqrt(double x) { Expects(x >= 0); /* ... */ }
Ideally, that Expects(x >= 0) should be part of the interface of sqrt() but that's not easily done. For now, we place it in the definition (function body).
References: Expects() is described in [GSL](#S-gsl).
Prefer a formal specification of requirements, such as Expects(p != nullptr);.
If that is infeasible, use English text in comments, such as // the sequence [p:q) is ordered using <.
Most member functions have as a precondition that some class invariant holds. That invariant is established by a constructor and must be reestablished upon exit by every member function called from outside the class. We don't need to mention it for each member function.
(Not enforceable)
See also: The rules for passing pointers. ???
Expects() for expressing preconditionsTo make it clear that the condition is a precondition and to enable tool use.
int area(int height, int width)
{
Expects(height > 0 && width > 0); // good
if (height <= 0 || width <= 0) my_error(); // obscure
// ...
}
Preconditions can be stated in many ways, including comments, if-statements, and assert().
This can make them hard to distinguish from ordinary code, hard to update, hard to manipulate by tools, and may have the wrong semantics (do you always want to abort in debug mode and check nothing in productions runs?).
Preconditions should be part of the interface rather than part of the implementation, but we don't yet have the language facilities to do that. Once language support becomes available (e.g., see the contract proposal) we will adopt the standard version of preconditions, postconditions, and assertions.
Expects() can also be used to check a condition in the middle of an algorithm.
(Not enforceable) Finding the variety of ways preconditions can be asserted is not feasible. Warning about those that can be easily identified (assert()) has questionable value in the absence of a language facility.
To detect misunderstandings about the result and possibly catch erroneous implementations.
Consider:
int area(int height, int width) { return height * width; } // bad
Here, we (incautiously) left out the precondition specification, so it is not explicit that height and width must be positive.
We also left out the postcondition specification, so it is not obvious that the algorithm (height * width) is wrong for areas larger than the largest integer.
Overflow can happen.
Consider using:
int area(int height, int width)
{
auto res = height * width;
Ensures(res > 0);
return res;
}
Consider a famous security bug:
void f() // problematic
{
char buffer[MAX];
// ...
memset(buffer, 0, MAX);
}
There was no postcondition stating that the buffer should be cleared and the optimizer eliminated the apparently redundant memset() call:
void f() // better
{
char buffer[MAX];
// ...
memset(buffer, 0, MAX);
Ensures(buffer[0] == 0);
}
Postconditions are often informally stated in a comment that states the purpose of a function; Ensures() can be used to make this more systematic, visible, and checkable.
Postconditions are especially important when they relate to something that is not directly reflected in a returned result, such as a state of a data structure used.
Consider a function that manipulates a Record, using a mutex to avoid race conditions:
mutex m;
void manipulate(Record& r) // don't
{
m.lock();
// ... no m.unlock() ...
}
Here, we forgot
to state that the mutex should be released, so we don't know if the failure to ensure release of the mutex was a bug or a feature.
Stating the postcondition would have made it clear:
void manipulate(Record& r) // postcondition: m is unlocked upon exit
{
m.lock();
// ... no m.unlock() ...
}
The bug is now obvious (but only to a human reading comments).
Better still, use [RAII](#Rr-raii) to ensure that the postcondition (the lock must be released
) is enforced in code:
void manipulate(Record& r) // best
{
lock_guard<mutex> _ {m};
// ...
}
Ideally, postconditions are stated in the interface/declaration so that users can easily see them. Only postconditions related to the users can be stated in the interface. Postconditions related only to internal state belongs in the definition/implementation.
(Not enforceable) This is a philosophical guideline that is infeasible to check directly in the general case. Domain specific checkers (like lock-holding checkers) exist for many toolchains.
Ensures() for expressing postconditionsTo make it clear that the condition is a postcondition and to enable tool use.
void f()
{
char buffer[MAX];
// ...
memset(buffer, 0, MAX);
Ensures(buffer[0] == 0);
}
Postconditions can be stated in many ways, including comments, if-statements, and assert().
This can make them hard to distinguish from ordinary code, hard to update, hard to manipulate by tools, and may have the wrong semantics.
Alternative: Postconditions of the form this resource must be released
are best expressed by [RAII](#Rr-raii).
Ideally, that Ensures should be part of the interface, but that's not easily done.
For now, we place it in the definition (function body).
Once language support becomes available (e.g., see the contract proposal) we will adopt the standard version of preconditions, postconditions, and assertions.
(Not enforceable) Finding the variety of ways postconditions can be asserted is not feasible. Warning about those that can be easily identified (assert()) has questionable value in the absence of a language facility.
Make the interface precisely specified and compile-time checkable in the (not so distant) future.
Use the ISO Concepts TS style of requirements specification. For example:
template<typename Iter, typename Val>
// requires InputIterator<Iter> && EqualityComparable<ValueType<Iter>>, Val>
Iter find(Iter first, Iter last, Val v)
{
// ...
}
Soon (maybe in 2017), most compilers will be able to check requires clauses once the // is removed.
For now, the concept TS is supported only in GCC 6.1.
See also: [Generic programming](#SS-GP) and [concepts](#SS-t-concepts).
(Not yet enforceable) A language facility is under specification. When the language facility is available, warn if any non-variadic template parameter is not constrained by a concept (in its declaration or mentioned in a requires clause).
It should not be possible to ignore an error because that could leave the system or a computation in an undefined (or unexpected) state. This is a major source of errors.
int printf(const char* ...); // bad: return negative number if output fails
template <class F, class ...Args>
// good: throw system_error if unable to start the new thread
explicit thread(F&& f, Args&&... args);
What is an error?
An error means that the function cannot achieve its advertised purpose (including establishing postconditions). Calling code that ignores an error could lead to wrong results or undefined systems state. For example, not being able to connect to a remote server is not by itself an error: the server can refuse a connection for all kinds of reasons, so the natural thing is to return a result that the caller always has to check. However, if failing to make a connection is considered an error, then a failure should throw an exception.
Many traditional interface functions (e.g., UNIX signal handlers) use error codes (e.g., errno) to report what are really status codes, rather than errors. You don't have a good alternative to using such, so calling these does not violate the rule.
If you can't use exceptions (e.g. because your code is full of old-style raw-pointer use or because there are hard-real-time constraints), consider using a style that returns a pair of values:
int val;
int error_code;
tie(val, error_code) = do_something();
if (error_code == 0) {
// ... handle the error or exit ...
}
// ... use val ...
This style unfortunately leads to uninitialized variables. A facility structured bindings to deal with that will become available in C++17.
[val, error_code] = do_something();
if (error_code == 0) {
// ... handle the error or exit ...
}
// ... use val ...
We don't consider performance
a valid reason not to use exceptions.
See also: [I.5](#Ri-pre) and [I.7](#Ri-post) for reporting precondition and postcondition violations.
errno.T*)If there is any doubt whether the caller or the callee owns an object, leaks or premature destruction will occur.
Consider:
X* compute(args) // don't
{
X* res = new X{};
// ...
return res;
}
Who deletes the returned X? The problem would be harder to spot if compute returned a reference.
Consider returning the result by value (use move semantics if the result is large):
vector<double> compute(args) // good
{
vector<double> res(10000);
// ...
return res;
}
Alternative: Pass ownership using a smart pointer
, such as unique_ptr (for exclusive ownership) and shared_ptr (for shared ownership).
However that is less elegant and less efficient unless reference semantics are needed.
Alternative: Sometimes older code can't be modified because of ABI compatibility requirements or lack of resources.
In that case, mark owning pointers using owner from the [guideline support library](#S-gsl):
owner<X*> compute(args) // It is now clear that ownership is transferred
{
owner<X*> res = new X{};
// ...
return res;
}
This tells analysis tools that res is an owner.
That is, its value must be deleted or transferred to another owner, as is done here by the return.
owner is used similarly in the implementation of resource handles.
Every object passed as a raw pointer (or iterator) is assumed to be owned by the
caller, so that its lifetime is handled by the caller. Viewed another way:
ownership transferring APIs are relatively rare compared to pointer-passing APIs,
so the default is no ownership transfer.
See also: [Argument passing](#Rf-conventional) and [value return](#Rf-T-return).
delete of a raw pointer that is not an owner.reset or explicitly delete an owner pointer on every code path.new or a function call with return value of pointer type is assigned to a raw pointer.not_nullTo help avoid dereferencing nullptr errors.
To improve performance by avoiding redundant checks for nullptr.
int length(const char* p); // it is not clear whether length(nullptr) is valid
length(nullptr); // OK?
int length(not_null<const char*> p); // better: we can assume that p cannot be nullptr
int length(const char* p); // we must assume that p can be nullptr
By stating the intent in source, implementers and tools can provide better diagnostics, such as finding some classes of errors through static analysis, and perform optimizations, such as removing branches and null tests.
not_null is defined in the [guideline support library](#S-gsl).
The assumption that the pointer to char pointed to a C-style string (a zero-terminated string of characters) was still implicit, and a potential source of confusion and errors. Use czstring in preference to const char*.
// we can assume that p cannot be nullptr
// we can assume that p points to a zero-terminated array of characters
int length(not_null<zstring> p);
Note: length() is, of course, std::strlen() in disguise.
nullptr before access, on all control-flow paths, then warn it should be declared not_null.nullptr on all return paths, then warn the return type should be declared not_null.(pointer, size)-style interfaces are error-prone. Also, a plain pointer (to array) must rely on some convention to allow the callee to determine the size.
Consider:
void copy_n(const T* p, T* q, int n); // copy from [p:p+n) to [q:q+n)
What if there are fewer than n elements in the array pointed to by q? Then, we overwrite some probably unrelated memory.
What if there are fewer than n elements in the array pointed to by p? Then, we read some probably unrelated memory.
Either is undefined behavior and a potentially very nasty bug.
Consider using explicit spans:
void copy(span<const T> r, span<T> r2); // copy r to r2
Consider:
void draw(Shape* p, int n); // poor interface; poor code
Circle arr[10];
// ...
draw(arr, 10);
Passing 10 as the n argument may be a mistake: the most common convention is to assume [0:n) but that is nowhere stated. Worse is that the call of draw() compiled at all: there was an implicit conversion from array to pointer (array decay) and then another implicit conversion from Circle to Shape. There is no way that draw() can safely iterate through that array: it has no way of knowing the size of the elements.
Alternative: Use a support class that ensures that the number of elements is correct and prevents dangerous implicit conversions. For example:
void draw2(span<Circle>);
Circle arr[10];
// ...
draw2(span<Circle>(arr)); // deduce the number of elements
draw2(arr); // deduce the element type and array size
void draw3(span<Shape>);
draw3(arr); // error: cannot convert Circle[10] to span<Shape>
This draw2() passes the same amount of information to draw(), but makes the fact that it is supposed to be a range of Circles explicit. See ???.
Use zstring and czstring to represent a C-style, zero-terminated strings.
But when doing so, use string_span from the [GSL](#GSL) to prevent range errors.
Complex initialization can lead to undefined order of execution.
// file1.c
extern const X x;
const Y y = f(x); // read x; write y
// file2.c
extern const Y y;
const X x = g(y); // read y; write x
Since x and y are in different translation units the order of calls to f() and g() is undefined;
one will access an uninitialized const.
This particular example shows that the order-of-initialization problem for global (namespace scope) objects is not limited to global variables.
Order of initialization problems become particularly difficult to handle in concurrent code. It is usually best to avoid global (namespace scope) objects altogether.
constexpr functionsextern objectsHaving many arguments opens opportunities for confusion. Passing lots of arguments is often costly compared to alternatives.
The standard-library merge() is at the limit of what we can comfortably handle
template<class InputIterator1, class InputIterator2, class OutputIterator, class Compare>
OutputIterator merge(InputIterator1 first1, InputIterator1 last1,
InputIterator2 first2, InputIterator2 last2,
OutputIterator result, Compare comp);
Here, we have four template arguments and six function arguments.
To simplify the most frequent and simplest uses, the comparison argument can be defaulted to <:
template<class InputIterator1, class InputIterator2, class OutputIterator>
OutputIterator merge(InputIterator1 first1, InputIterator1 last1,
InputIterator2 first2, InputIterator2 last2,
OutputIterator result);
This doesn't reduce the total complexity, but it reduces the surface complexity presented to many users. To really reduce the number of arguments, we need to bundle the arguments into higher-level abstractions:
template<class InputRange1, class InputRange2, class OutputIterator>
OutputIterator merge(InputRange1 r1, InputRange2 r2, OutputIterator result);
Grouping arguments into bundles
is a general technique to reduce the number of arguments and to increase the opportunities for checking.
Alternatively, we could use concepts (as defined by the ISO TS) to define the notion of three types that must be usable for merging:
Mergeable{In1 In2, Out}
OutputIterator merge(In1 r1, In2 r2, Out result);
How many arguments are too many? Four arguments is a lot. There are functions that are best expressed with four individual arguments, but not many.
Alternative: Group arguments into meaningful objects and pass the objects (by value or by reference).
Alternative: Use default arguments or overloads to allow the most common forms of calls to be done with fewer arguments.
Adjacent arguments of the same type are easily swapped by mistake.
Consider:
void copy_n(T* p, T* q, int n); // copy from [p:p+n) to [q:q+n)
This is a nasty variant of a K&R C-style interface. It is easy to reverse the to
and from
arguments.
Use const for the from
argument:
void copy_n(const T* p, T* q, int n); // copy from [p:p+n) to [q:q+n)
If the order of the parameters is not important, there is no problem:
int max(int a, int b);
Don't pass arrays as pointers, pass an object representing a range (e.g., a span):
void copy_n(span<const T> p, span<T> q); // copy from p to q
Define a struct as the parameter type and name the fields for those parameters accordingly:
struct SystemParams {
string config_file;
string output_path;
seconds timeout;
};
void initialize(SystemParams p);
This has a tendency to make invocations of this clear to future readers, as the parameters are often filled in by name at the call site.
(Simple) Warn if two consecutive parameters share the same type.
Abstract classes are more likely to be stable than base classes with state.
You just knew that Shape would turn up somewhere :-)
class Shape { // bad: interface class loaded with data
public:
Point center() const { return c; }
virtual void draw() const;
virtual void rotate(int);
// ...
private:
Point c;
vector<Point> outline;
Color col;
};
This will force every derived class to compute a center -- even if that's non-trivial and the center is never used. Similarly, not every Shape has a Color, and many Shapes are best represented without an outline defined as a sequence of Points. Abstract classes were invented to discourage users from writing such classes:
class Shape { // better: Shape is a pure interface
public:
virtual Point center() const = 0; // pure virtual function
virtual void draw() const = 0;
virtual void rotate(int) = 0;
// ...
// ... no data members ...
};
(Simple) Warn if a pointer to a class C is assigned to a pointer to a base of C and the base class contains data members.
Different compilers implement different binary layouts for classes, exception handling, function names, and other implementation details.
You can carefully craft an interface using a few carefully selected higher-level C++ types. See ???.
Common ABIs are emerging on some platforms freeing you from the more draconian restrictions.
If you use a single compiler, you can use full C++ in interfaces. That may require recompilation after an upgrade to a new compiler version.
(Not enforceable) It is difficult to reliably identify where an interface forms part of an ABI.
A function specifies an action or a computation that takes the system from one consistent state to the next. It is the fundamental building block of programs.
It should be possible to name a function meaningfully, to specify the requirements of its argument, and clearly state the relationship between the arguments and the result. An implementation is not a specification. Try to think about what a function does as well as about how it does it. Functions are the most critical part in most interfaces, so see the interface rules.
Function rule summary:
Function definition rules:
Packagemeaningful operations as carefully named functions](#Rf-package)
constexpr](#Rf-constexpr)noexcept](#Rf-noexcept)T* or T& arguments rather than smart pointers](#Rf-smart)Parameter passing expression rules:
inparameters, pass cheaply-copied types by value and others by reference to
const](#Rf-in)in-outparameters, pass by reference to non-
const](#Rf-inout)consumeparameters, pass by
X&& and std::move the parameter](#Rf-consume)forwardparameters, pass by
TP&& and only std::forward the parameter](#Rf-forward)outoutput values, prefer return values to output parameters](#Rf-out)
outvalues, prefer returning a tuple or struct](#Rf-out-multi)
T* over T& when no argumentis a valid option](#Rf-ptr-ref)
Parameter passing semantic rules:
T* or owner<T*> or a smart pointer to designate a single object](#Rf-ptr)not_null<T> to indicate nullis not a valid value](#Rf-nullptr)
span<T> or a span_p<T> to designate a half-open sequence](#Rf-range)zstring or a not_null<zstring> to designate a C-style string](#Rf-string)unique_ptr<T> to transfer ownership where a pointer is needed](#Rf-unique_ptr)shared_ptr<T> to share ownership](#Rf-shared_ptr)Value return semantic rules:
T* to indicate a position (only)](#Rf-return-ptr)T& when copy is undesirable and returning no objectisn't an option](#Rf-return-ref)
T&&](#Rf-return-ref-ref)int is the return type for main()](#Rf-main)T& from assignment operators.](#Rf-assignment-op)Other function rules:
this, capture all variables explicitly (no default capture)](#Rf-this-capture)Functions have strong similarities to lambdas and function objects so see also Section ???.
A function definition is a function declaration that also specifies the function's implementation, the function body.
Packagemeaningful operations as carefully named functions
Factoring out common code makes code more readable, more likely to be reused, and limit errors from complex code. If something is a well-specified action, separate it out from its surrounding code and give it a name.
void read_and_print(istream& is) // read and print an int
{
int x;
if (is >> x)
cout << "the int is " << x << '\n';
else
cerr << "no int on input\n";
}
Almost everything is wrong with read_and_print.
It reads, it writes (to a fixed ostream), it writes error messages (to a fixed ostream), it handles only ints.
There is nothing to reuse, logically separate operations are intermingled and local variables are in scope after the end of their logical use.
For a tiny example, this looks OK, but if the input operation, the output operation, and the error handling had been more complicated the tangled
mess could become hard to understand.
If you write a non-trivial lambda that potentially can be used in more than one place, give it a name by assigning it to a (usually non-local) variable.
sort(a, b, [](T x, T y) { return x.rank() < y.rank() && x.value() < y.value(); });
Naming that lambda breaks up the expression into its logical parts and provides a strong hint to the meaning of the lambda.
auto lessT = [](T x, T y) { return x.rank() < y.rank() && x.value() < y.value(); };
sort(a, b, lessT);
find_if(a, b, lessT);
The shortest code is not always the best for performance or maintainability.
Loop bodies, including lambdas used as loop bodies, rarely need to be named.
However, large loop bodies (e.g., dozens of lines or dozens of pages) can be a problem.
The rule [Keep functions short](#Rf-single) implies Keep loop bodies short.
Similarly, lambdas used as callback arguments are sometimes non-trivial, yet unlikely to be re-usable.
A function that performs a single operation is simpler to understand, test, and reuse.
Consider:
void read_and_print() // bad
{
int x;
cin >> x;
// check for errors
cout << x << "\n";
}
This is a monolith that is tied to a specific input and will never find a another (different) use. Instead, break functions up into suitable logical parts and parameterize:
int read(istream& is) // better
{
int x;
is >> x;
// check for errors
return x;
}
void print(ostream& os, int x)
{
os << x << "\n";
}
These can now be combined where needed:
void read_and_print()
{
auto x = read(cin);
print(cout, x);
}
If there was a need, we could further templatize read() and print() on the data type, the I/O mechanism, the response to errors, etc. Example:
auto read = [](auto& input, auto& value) // better
{
input >> value;
// check for errors
};
auto print(auto& output, const auto& value)
{
output << value << "\n";
}
outparameter suspicious. Use return values instead, including
tuple for multiple return values.largefunctions that don't fit on one editor screen suspicious. Consider factoring such a function into smaller well-named suboperations.
Large functions are hard to read, more likely to contain complex code, and more likely to have variables in larger than minimal scopes. Functions with complex control structures are more likely to be long and more likely to hide logical errors
Consider:
double simpleFunc(double val, int flag1, int flag2)
// simpleFunc: takes a value and calculates the expected ASIC output,
// given the two mode flags.
{
double intermediate;
if (flag1 > 0) {
intermediate = func1(val);
if (flag2 % 2)
intermediate = sqrt(intermediate);
}
else if (flag1 == -1) {
intermediate = func1(-val);
if (flag2 % 2)
intermediate = sqrt(-intermediate);
flag1 = -flag1;
}
if (abs(flag2) > 10) {
intermediate = func2(intermediate);
}
switch (flag2 / 10) {
case 1: if (flag1 == -1) return finalize(intermediate, 1.171);
break;
case 2: return finalize(intermediate, 13.1);
default: break;
}
return finalize(intermediate, 0.);
}
This is too complex (and also pretty long). How would you know if all possible alternatives have been correctly handled? Yes, it breaks other rules also.
We can refactor:
double func1_muon(double val, int flag)
{
// ???
}
double funct1_tau(double val, int flag1, int flag2)
{
// ???
}
double simpleFunc(double val, int flag1, int flag2)
// simpleFunc: takes a value and calculates the expected ASIC output,
// given the two mode flags.
{
if (flag1 > 0)
return func1_muon(val, flag2);
if (flag1 == -1)
// handled by func1_tau: flag1 = -flag1;
return func1_tau(-val, flag1, flag2);
return 0.;
}
It doesn't fit on a screen
is often a good practical definition of far too large.
One-to-five-line functions should be considered normal.
Break large functions up into smaller cohesive and named functions. Small simple functions are easily inlined where the cost of a function call is significant.
fit on a screen.How big is a screen? Try 60 lines by 140 characters; that's roughly the maximum that's comfortable for a book page.
more than 10 logical path through.Count a simple switch as one path.
constexprconstexpr is needed to tell the compiler to allow compile-time evaluation.
The (in)famous factorial:
constexpr int fac(int n)
{
constexpr int max_exp = 17; // constexpr enables max_exp to be used in Expects
Expects(0 <= n && n < max_exp); // prevent silliness and overflow
int x = 1;
for (int i = 2; i <= n; ++i) x *= i;
return x;
}
This is C++14.
For C++11, use a recursive formulation of fac().
constexpr does not guarantee compile-time evaluation;
it just guarantees that the function can be evaluated at compile time for constant expression arguments if the programmer requires it or the compiler decides to do so to optimize.
constexpr int min(int x, int y) { return x < y ? x : y; }
void test(int v)
{
int m1 = min(-1, 2); // probably compile-time evaluation
constexpr int m2 = min(-1, 2); // compile-time evaluation
int m3 = min(-1, v); // run-time evaluation
constexpr int m4 = min(-1, v); // error: cannot evaluate at compile-time
}
constexpr functions are pure: they can have no side effects.
int dcount = 0;
constexpr int double(int v)
{
++dcount; // error: attempted side effect from constexpr function
return v + v;
}
This is usually a very good thing.
When given a non-constant argument, a constexpr function can throw.
If you consider exiting by throwing a side-effect, a constexpr function isn't completely pure;
if not, this is not an issue.
??? A question for the committee: can a constructor for an exception thrown by a constexpr function modify state?
No
would be a nice answer that matches most practice.
Don't try to make all functions constexpr.
Most computation is best done at run time.
Any API that may eventually depend on high-level runtime configuration or
business logic should not be made constexpr. Such customization can not be
evaluated by the compiler, and any constexpr functions that depend upon that
API will have to be refactored or drop constexpr.
Impossible and unnecessary.
The compiler gives an error if a non-constexpr function is called where a constant is required.
inlineSome optimizers are good at inlining without hints from the programmer, but don't rely on it.
Measure! Over the last 40 years or so, we have been promised compilers that can inline better than humans without hints from humans.
We are still waiting.
Specifying inline encourages the compiler to do a better job.
inline string cat(const string& s, const string& s2) { return s + s2; }
Do not put an inline function in what is meant to be a stable interface unless you are really sure that it will not change.
An inline function is part of the ABI.
constexpr implies inline.
Member functions defined in-class are inline by default.
Template functions (incl. template member functions) must be in headers and therefore inline.
Flag inline functions that are more than three statements and could have been declared out of line (such as class member functions).
noexceptIf an exception is not supposed to be thrown, the program cannot be assumed to cope with the error and should be terminated as soon as possible. Declaring a function noexcept helps optimizers by reducing the number of alternative execution paths. It also speeds up the exit after failure.
Put noexcept on every function written completely in C or in any other language without exceptions.
The C++ standard library does that implicitly for all functions in the C standard library.
constexpr functions cannot throw, so you don't need to use noexcept for those.
You can use noexcept even on functions that can throw:
vector<string> collect(istream& is) noexcept
{
vector<string> res;
for (string s; is >> s;)
res.push_back(s);
return res;
}
If collect() runs out of memory, the program crashes.
Unless the program is crafted to survive memory exhaustion, that may be just the right thing to do;
terminate() may generate suitable error log information (but after memory runs out it is hard to do anything clever).
You must be aware of the execution environment that your code is running when
deciding whether to tag a function noexcept, especially because of the issue
of throwing and allocation. Code that is intended to be perfectly general (like
the standard library and other utility code of that sort) needs to support
environments where a bad_alloc exception may be handled meaningfully.
However, the majority of programs and execution environments cannot meaningfully
handle a failure to allocate, and aborting the program is the cleanest and
simplest response to an allocation failure in those cases. If you know that
your application code cannot respond to an allocation failure, it may be
appropriate to add noexcept even on functions that allocate.
Put another way: In most programs, most functions can throw (e.g., because they
use new, call functions that do, or use library functions that reports failure
by throwing), so don't just sprinkle noexcept all over the place without
considering whether the possible exceptions can be handled.
noexcept is most useful (and most clearly correct) for frequently used,
low-level functions.
Destructors, swap functions, move operations, and default constructors should never throw.
noexcept, yet cannot throw.swap, move, destructors, and default constructors.T* or T& arguments rather than smart pointersPassing a smart pointer transfers or shares ownership and should only be used when ownership semantics are intended (see [R.30](#Rr-smartptrparam)).
Passing by smart pointer restricts the use of a function to callers that use smart pointers.
Passing a shared smart pointer (e.g., std::shared_ptr) implies a run-time cost.
// accepts any int*
void f(int*);
// can only accept ints for which you want to transfer ownership
void g(unique_ptr<int>);
// can only accept ints for which you are willing to share ownership
void g(shared_ptr<int>);
// doesn't change ownership, but requires a particular ownership of the caller
void h(const unique_ptr<int>&);
// accepts any int
void h(int&);
// callee
void f(shared_ptr<widget>& w)
{
// ...
use(*w); // only use of w -- the lifetime is not used at all
// ...
};
See further in [R.30](#Rr-smartptrparam).
We can catch dangling pointers statically, so we don't need to rely on resource management to avoid violations from dangling pointers.
See also: [when to prefer T* and when to prefer T&](#Rf-ptr-ref).
See also: Discussion of [smart pointer use](#Rr-summary-smartptrs).
Flag a parameter of a smart pointer type (a type that overloads operator-> or operator*) for which the ownership semantics are not used;
that is
Pure functions are easier to reason about, sometimes easier to optimize (and even parallelize), and sometimes can be memoized.
template<class T>
auto square(T t) { return t * t; }
constexpr functions are pure.
When given a non-constant argument, a constexpr function can throw.
If you consider exiting by throwing a side-effect, a constexpr function isn't completely pure;
if not, this is not an issue.
??? A question for the committee: can a constructor for an exception thrown by a constexpr function modify state?
No
would be a nice answer that matches most practice.
Not possible.
There are a variety of ways to pass parameters to a function and to return values.
Using unusual and clever
techniques causes surprises, slows understanding by other programmers, and encourages bugs.
If you really feel the need for an optimization beyond the common techniques, measure to ensure that it really is an improvement, and document/comment because the improvement may not be portable.
The following tables summarize the advice in the following Guidelines, F.16-21.
Normal parameter passing:
Advanced parameter passing:
Use the advanced techniques only after demonstrating need, and document that need in a comment.
inparameters, pass cheaply-copied types by value and others by reference to
constBoth let the caller know that a function will not modify the argument, and both allow initialization by rvalues.
What is cheap to copy
depends on the machine architecture, but two or three words (doubles, pointers, references) are usually best passed by value.
When copying is cheap, nothing beats the simplicity and safety of copying, and for small objects (up to two or three words) it is also faster than passing by reference because it does not require an extra indirection to access from the function.
void f1(const string& s); // OK: pass by reference to const; always cheap
void f2(string s); // bad: potentially expensive
void f3(int x); // OK: Unbeatable
void f4(const int& x); // bad: overhead on access in f4()
For advanced uses (only), where you really need to optimize for rvalues passed to input-only
parameters:
&&. See [F.18](#Rf-consume).const& (for lvalues),
add an overload that passes the parameter by && (for rvalues) and in the body std::moves it to its destination. Essentially this overloads a consume; see [F.18](#Rf-consume).
input + copyparameters, consider using perfect forwarding. See [F.19](#Rf-forward).
int multiply(int, int); // just input ints, pass by value
// suffix is input-only but not as cheap as an int, pass by const&
string& concatenate(string&, const string& suffix);
void sink(unique_ptr<widget>); // input only, and consumes the widget
Avoid esoteric techniques
such as:
T&& for efficiency. Most rumors about performance advantages from passing by
&& are false or brittle (but see [F.25](#Rf-pass-ref-move).)const T& from assignments and similar operations (see [F.47](#Rf-assignment-op).)Assuming that Matrix has move operations (possibly by keeping its elements in a std::vector):
Matrix operator+(const Matrix& a, const Matrix& b)
{
Matrix res;
// ... fill res with the sum ...
return res;
}
Matrix x = m1 + m2; // move constructor
y = m3 + m3; // move assignment
The return value optimization doesn't handle the assignment case, but the move assignment does.
A reference may be assumed to refer to a valid object (language rule).
There is no (legitimate) null reference.
If you need the notion of an optional value, use a pointer, std::optional, or a special value used to denote no value.
4 * sizeof(int).
Suggest using a reference to const instead.const parameter being passed by reference has a size less than 3 * sizeof(int). Suggest passing by value instead.const parameter being passed by reference is moved.in-outparameters, pass by reference to non-
constThis makes it clear to callers that the object is assumed to be modified.
void update(Record& r); // assume that update writes to r
A T& argument can pass information into a function as well as well as out of it.
Thus T& could be an in-out-parameter. That can in itself be a problem and a source of errors:
void f(string& s)
{
s = "New York"; // non-obvious error
}
void g()
{
string buffer = ".................................";
f(buffer);
// ...
}
Here, the writer of g() is supplying a buffer for f() to fill, but f() simply replaces it (at a somewhat higher cost than a simple copy of the characters).
If the writer of g() makes an assumption about the size of buffer a bad logic error can happen.
const parameters that do not write to them.const parameter being passed by reference is moved.consumeparameters, pass by
X&& and std::move the parameterIt's efficient and eliminates bugs at the call site: X&& binds to rvalues, which requires an explicit std::move at the call site if passing an lvalue.
void sink(vector<int>&& v) { // sink takes ownership of whatever the argument owned
// usually there might be const accesses of v here
store_somewhere(std::move(v));
// usually no more use of v here; it is moved-from
}
Note that the std::move(v) makes it possible for store_somewhere() to leave v in a moved-from state.
[That could be dangerous](#Rc-move-semantic).
Unique owner types that are move-only and cheap-to-move, such as unique_ptr, can also be passed by value which is simpler to write and achieves the same effect. Passing by value does generate one extra (cheap) move operation, but prefer simplicity and clarity first.
For example:
template <class T>
void sink(std::unique_ptr<T> p) {
// use p ... possibly std::move(p) onward somewhere else
} // p gets destroyed
X&& parameters (where X is not a template type parameter name) where the function body uses them without std::move.forwardparameters, pass by
TP&& and only std::forward the parameterIf the object is to be passed onward to other code and not directly used by this function, we want to make this function agnostic to the argument const-ness and rvalue-ness.
In that case, and only that case, make the parameter TP&& where TP is a template type parameter -- it both ignores and preserves const-ness and rvalue-ness. Therefore any code that uses a TP&& is implicitly declaring that it itself doesn't care about the variable's const-ness and rvalue-ness (because it is ignored), but that intends to pass the value onward to other code that does care about const-ness and rvalue-ness (because it is preserved). When used as a parameter TP&& is safe because any temporary objects passed from the caller will live for the duration of the function call. A parameter of type TP&& should essentially always be passed onward via std::forward in the body of the function.
template <class F, class... Args>
inline auto invoke(F f, Args&&... args) {
return f(forward<Args>(args)...);
}
??? calls ???
TP&& parameter (where TP is a template type parameter name) and does anything with it other than std::forwarding it exactly once on every static path.outoutput values, prefer return values to output parameters
A return value is self-documenting, whereas a & could be either in-out or out-only and is liable to be misused.
This includes large objects like standard containers that use implicit move operations for performance and to avoid explicit memory management.
If you have multiple values to return, [use a tuple](#Rf-out-multi) or similar multi-member type.
// OK: return pointers to elements with the value x
vector<const int*> find_all(const vector<int>&, int x);
// Bad: place pointers to elements with value x in out
void find_all(const vector<int>&, vector<const int*>& out, int x);
A struct of many (individually cheap-to-move) elements may be in aggregate expensive to move.
It is not recommended to return a const value.
Such older advice is now obsolete; it does not add value, and it interferes with move semantics.
const vector<int> fct(); // bad: that "const" is more trouble than it is worth
vector<int> g(const vector<int>& vx)
{
// ...
f() = vx; // prevented by the "const"
// ...
return f(); // expensive copy: move semantics suppressed by the "const"
}
The argument for adding const to a return value is that it prevents (very rare) accidental access to a temporary.
The argument against is prevents (very frequent) use of move semantics.
unique_ptr or shared_ptr.array<BigPOD>), consider allocating it on the free store and return a handle (e.g., unique_ptr), or passing it in a reference to non-const target object to fill (to be used as an out-parameter).std::string, std::vector) across multiple calls to the function in an inner loop: [treat it as an in/out parameter and pass by reference](#Rf-out-multi).struct Package { // exceptional case: expensive-to-move object
char header[16];
char load[2024 - 16];
};
Package fill(); // Bad: large return value
void fill(Package&); // OK
int val(); // OK
void val(int&); // Bad: Is val reading its argument
const parameters that are not read before being written to and are a type that could be cheaply returned; they should be outreturn values.
const value. To fix: Remove const to return a non-const value instead.outvalues, prefer returning a tuple or struct
A return value is self-documenting as an output-only
value.
Note that C++ does have multiple return values, by convention of using a tuple,
possibly with the extra convenience of tie at the call site.
// BAD: output-only parameter documented in a comment
int f(const string& input, /*output only*/ string& output_data)
{
// ...
output_data = something();
return status;
}
// GOOD: self-documenting
tuple<int, string> f(const string& input)
{
// ...
return make_tuple(status, something());
}
C++98's standard library already used this style, because a pair is like a two-element tuple.
For example, given a set<string> my_set, consider:
// C++98
result = my_set.insert("Hello");
if (result.second) do_something_with(result.first); // workaround
With C++11 we can write this, putting the results directly in existing local variables:
Sometype iter; // default initialize if we haven't already
Someothertype success; // used these variables for some other purpose
tie(iter, success) = my_set.insert("Hello"); // normal return value
if (success) do_something_with(iter);
With C++17 we should be able to use structured bindings
to declare and initialize the multiple variables:
if (auto [ iter, success ] = my_set.insert("Hello"); success) do_something_with(iter);
Sometimes, we need to pass an object to a function to manipulate its state.
In such cases, passing the object by reference [T&](#Rf-inout) is usually the right technique.
Explicitly passing an in-out parameter back out again as a return value is often not necessary.
For example:
istream& operator>>(istream& is, string& s); // much like std::operator>>()
for (string s; cin >> s; ) {
// do something with line
}
Here, both s and cin are used as in-out parameters.
We pass cin by (non-const) reference to be able to manipulate its state.
We pass s to avoid repeated allocations.
By reusing s (passed by reference), we allocate new memory only when we need to expand s's capacity.
This technique is sometimes called the caller-allocated out
pattern and is particularly useful for types,
such as string and vector, that needs to do free store allocations.
To compare, if we passed out all values as return values, we would something like this:
pair<istream&, string> get_string(istream& is); // not recommended
{
string s;
cin >> s;
return {is, s};
}
for (auto p = get_string(cin); p.first; ) {
// do something with p.second
}
We consider that significantly less elegant and definitely significantly slower.
For a really strict reading this rule (F.21), the exceptions isn't really an exception because it relies on in-out parameters, rather than the plain out parameters mentioned in the rule. However, we prefer to be explicit, rather than subtle.
In many cases it may be useful to return a specific, user-defined Value or error
type.
For example:
struct
The overly-generic pair and tuple should be used only when the value returned represents to independent entities rather than an abstraction.
type along the lines of variant<T, error_code>, rather than using the generic tuple.
const member function, or passes on as a non-const.T* or owner<T*> to designate a single objectReadability: it makes the meaning of a plain pointer clear. Enables significant tool support.
In traditional C and C++ code, plain T* is used for many weakly-related purposes, such as:
nullptrThis makes it hard to understand what the code does and is supposed to do. It complicates checking and tool support.
void use(int* p, int n, char* s, int* q)
{
p[n - 1] = 666; // Bad: we don't know if p points to n elements;
// assume it does not or use span<int>
cout << s; // Bad: we don't know if that s points to a zero-terminated array of char;
// assume it does not or use zstring
delete q; // Bad: we don't know if *q is allocated on the free store;
// assume it does not or use owner
}
better
void use2(span<int> p, zstring s, owner<int*> q)
{
p[p.size() - 1] = 666; // OK, a range error can be caught
cout << s; // OK
delete q; // OK
}
owner<T*> represents ownership, zstring represents a C-style string.
Also: Assume that a T* obtained from a smart pointer to T (e.g., unique_ptr<T>) points to a single element.
See also: [Support library](#S-gsl).
not_null<T> to indicate that nullis not a valid value
Clarity. A function with a not_null<T> parameter makes it clear that the caller of the function is responsible for any nullptr checks that may be necessary.
Similarly, a function with a return value of not_null<T> makes it clear that the caller of the function does not need to check for nullptr.
not_null<T*> makes it obvious to a reader (human or machine) that a test for nullptr is not necessary before dereference.
Additionally, when debugging, owner<T*> and not_null<T> can be instrumented to check for correctness.
Consider:
int length(Record* p);
When I call length(p) should I test for p == nullptr first? Should the implementation of length() test for p == nullptr?
// it is the caller's job to make sure p != nullptr
int length(not_null<Record*> p);
// the implementor of length() must assume that p == nullptr is possible
int length(Record* p);
A not_null<T*> is assumed not to be the nullptr; a T* may be the nullptr; both can be represented in memory as a T* (so no run-time overhead is implied).
not_null is not just for built-in pointers. It works for unique_ptr, shared_ptr, and other pointer-like types.
nullptr (or equivalent) within a function, suggest it is declared not_null instead.nullptr (or equivalent) within the function and sometimes is not.not_null pointer is tested against nullptr within a function.span<T> or a span_p<T> to designate a half-open sequenceInformal/non-explicit ranges are a source of errors.
X* find(span<X> r, const X& v); // find v in r
vector<X> vec;
// ...
auto p = find({vec.begin(), vec.end()}, X{}); // find X{} in vec
Ranges are extremely common in C++ code. Typically, they are implicit and their correct use is very hard to ensure.
In particular, given a pair of arguments (p, n) designating an array [p:p+n),
it is in general impossible to know if there really are n elements to access following *p.
span<T> and span_p<T> are simple helper classes designating a [p:q) range and a range starting with p and ending with the first element for which a predicate is true, respectively.
A span represents a range of elements, but how do we manipulate elements of that range?
void f(span<int> s)
{
// range traversal (guaranteed correct)
for (int x : s) cout << x << '\n';
// C-style traversal (potentially checked)
for (int i = 0; i < s.size(); ++i) cout << s[i] << '\n';
// random access (potentially checked)
s[7] = 9;
// extract pointers (potentially checked)
std::sort(&s[0], &s[s.size() / 2]);
}
A span<T> object does not own its elements and is so small that it can be passed by value.
Passing a span object as an argument is exactly as efficient as passing a pair of pointer arguments or passing a pointer and an integer count.
See also: [Support library](#S-gsl).
(Complex) Warn where accesses to pointer parameters are bounded by other parameters that are integral types and suggest they could use span instead.
zstring or a not_null<zstring> to designate a C-style stringC-style strings are ubiquitous. They are defined by convention: zero-terminated arrays of characters. We must distinguish C-style strings from a pointer to a single character or an old-fashioned pointer to an array of characters.
Consider:
int length(const char* p);
When I call length(s) should I test for s == nullptr first? Should the implementation of length() test for p == nullptr?
// the implementor of length() must assume that p == nullptr is possible
int length(zstring p);
// it is the caller's job to make sure p != nullptr
int length(not_null<zstring> p);
zstring do not represent ownership.
See also: [Support library](#S-gsl).
unique_ptr<T> to transfer ownership where a pointer is neededUsing unique_ptr is the cheapest way to pass a pointer safely.
unique_ptr<Shape> get_shape(istream& is) // assemble shape from input stream
{
auto kind = read_header(is); // read header and identify the next shape on input
switch (kind) {
case kCircle:
return make_unique<Circle>(is);
case kTriangle:
return make_unique<Triangle>(is);
// ...
}
}
You need to pass a pointer rather than an object if what you are transferring is an object from a class hierarchy that is to be used through an interface (base class).
(Simple) Warn if a function returns a locally-allocated raw pointer. Suggest using either unique_ptr or shared_ptr instead.
shared_ptr<T> to share ownershipUsing std::shared_ptr is the standard way to represent shared ownership. That is, the last owner deletes the object.
shared_ptr<const Image> im { read_image(somewhere) };
std::thread t0 {shade, args0, top_left, im};
std::thread t1 {shade, args1, top_right, im};
std::thread t2 {shade, args2, bottom_left, im};
std::thread t3 {shade, args3, bottom_right, im};
// detach threads
// last thread to finish deletes the image
Prefer a unique_ptr over a shared_ptr if there is never more than one owner at a time.
shared_ptr is for shared ownership.
Note that pervasive use of shared_ptr has a cost (atomic operations on the shared_ptr's reference count have a measurable aggregate cost).
Have a single object own the shared object (e.g. a scoped object) and destroy that (preferably implicitly) when all users have completed.
(Not enforceable) This is a too complex pattern to reliably detect.
T* over T& when no argumentis a valid option
A pointer (T*) can be a nullptr and a reference (T&) cannot, there is no valid null reference
.
Sometimes having nullptr as an alternative to indicated no object
is useful, but if it is not, a reference is notationally simpler and might yield better code.
string zstring_to_string(zstring p) // zstring is a char*; that is a C-style string
{
if (p == nullptr) return string{}; // p might be nullptr; remember to check
return string{p};
}
void print(const vector<int>& r)
{
// r refers to a vector<int>; no check needed
}
It is possible, but not valid C++ to construct a reference that is essentially a nullptr (e.g., T* p = nullptr; T& r = (T&)*p;).
That error is very uncommon.
If you prefer the pointer notation (-> and/or * vs. .), not_null<T*> provides the same guarantee as T&.
T* to indicate a position (only)That's what pointers are good for.
Returning a T* to transfer ownership is a misuse.
Node* find(Node* t, const string& s) // find s in a binary tree of Nodes
{
if (t == nullptr || t->name == s) return t;
if ((auto p = find(t->left, s))) return p;
if ((auto p = find(t->right, s))) return p;
return nullptr;
}
If it isn't the nullptr, the pointer returned by find indicates a Node holding s.
Importantly, that does not imply a transfer of ownership of the pointed-to object to the caller.
Positions can also be transferred by iterators, indices, and references.
A reference is often a superior alternative to a pointer [if there is no need to use nullptr](#Rf-ptr-ref) or [if the object referred to should not change](???).
Do not return a pointer to something that is not in the caller's scope; see [F.43](#Rf-dangle).
See also: [discussion of dangling pointer prevention](#???).
delete, std::free(), etc. applied to a plain T*.
Only owners should be deleted.new, malloc(), etc. assigned to a plain T*.
Only owners should be responsible for deletion.To avoid the crashes and data corruption that can result from the use of such a dangling pointer.
After the return from a function its local objects no longer exist:
int* f()
{
int fx = 9;
return &fx; // BAD
}
void g(int* p) // looks innocent enough
{
int gx;
cout << "*p == " << *p << '\n';
*p = 999;
cout << "gx == " << gx << '\n';
}
void h()
{
int* p = f();
int z = *p; // read from abandoned stack frame (bad)
g(p); // pass pointer to abandoned stack frame to function (bad)
}
Here on one popular implementation I got the output:
*p == 999
gx == 999
I expected that because the call of g() reuses the stack space abandoned by the call of f() so *p refers to the space now occupied by gx.
fx and gx were of different types.fx or gx was a type with an invariant.Fortunately, most (all?) modern compilers catch and warn against this simple case.
This applies to references as well:
int& f()
{
int x = 7;
// ...
return x; // Bad: returns reference to object that is about to be destroyed
}
This applies only to non-static local variables.
All static variables are (as their name indicates) statically allocated, so that pointers to them cannot dangle.
Not all examples of leaking a pointer to a local variable are that obvious:
int* glob; // global variables are bad in so many ways
template<class T>
void steal(T x)
{
glob = x(); // BAD
}
void f()
{
int i = 99;
steal([&] { return &i; });
}
int main()
{
f();
cout << *glob << '\n';
}
Here I managed to read the location abandoned by the call of f.
The pointer stored in glob could be used much later and cause trouble in unpredictable ways.
The address of a local variable can be returned
/leaked by a return statement, by a T& out-parameter, as a member of a returned object, as an element of a returned array, and more.
Similar examples can be constructed leaking
a pointer from an inner scope to an outer one;
such examples are handled equivalently to leaks of pointers out of a function.
A slightly different variant of the problem is placing pointers in a container that outlives the objects pointed to.
See also: Another way of getting dangling pointers is [pointer invalidation](#???). It can be detected/prevented with similar techniques.
T& when copy is undesirable and returning no objectisn't needed
The language guarantees that a T& refers to an object, so that testing for nullptr isn't necessary.
See also: The return of a reference must not imply transfer of ownership: [discussion of dangling pointer prevention](#???) and [discussion of ownership](#???).
class Car
{
array<wheel, 4> w;
// ...
public:
wheel& get_wheel(size_t i) { Expects(i < 4); return w[i]; }
// ...
};
void use()
{
Car c;
wheel& w0 = c.get_wheel(0); // w0 has the same lifetime as c
}
Flag functions where no return expression could yield nullptr
T&&It's asking to return a reference to a destroyed temporary object. A && is a magnet for temporary objects. This is fine when the reference to the temporary is being passed downward
to a callee, because the temporary is guaranteed to outlive the function call. (See [F.24](#Rf-pass-ref-ref) and [F.25](#Rf-pass-ref-move).) However, it's not fine when passing such a reference upward
to a larger caller scope. See also ???.
For passthrough functions that pass in parameters (by ordinary reference or by perfect forwarding) and want to return values, use simple auto return type deduction (not auto&&).
If F returns by value, this function returns a reference to a temporary.
template<class F>
auto&& wrapper(F f)
{
log_call(typeid(f)); // or whatever instrumentation
return f();
}
Better:
template<class F>
auto wrapper(F f)
{
log_call(typeid(f)); // or whatever instrumentation
return f();
}
std::move and std::forward do return &&, but they are just casts -- used by convention only in expression contexts where a reference to a temporary object is passed along within the same expression before the temporary is destroyed. We don't know of any other good examples of returning &&.
Flag any use of && as a return type, except in std::move and std::forward.
int is the return type for main()It's a language rule, but violated through language extensions
so often that it is worth mentioning.
Declaring main (the one global main of a program) void limits portability.
void main() { /* ... */ }; // bad, not C++
int main()
{
std::cout << "This is the way to do it\n";
}
We mention this only because of the persistence of this error in the community.
T& from assignment operatorsThe convention for operator overloads (especially on value types) is for
operator=(const T&) to perform the assignment and then return (non-const)
*this. This ensures consistency with standard library types and follows the
principle of do as the ints do.
Historically there was some guidance to make the assignment operator return const T&.
This was primarily to avoid code of the form (a = b) = c -- such code is not common enough to warrant violating consistency with standard types.
class Foo
{
public:
...
Foo& operator=(const Foo& rhs) {
// Copy members.
...
return *this;
}
};
This should be enforced by tooling by checking the return type (and return value) of any assignment operator.
Functions can't capture local variables or be declared at local scope; if you need those things, prefer a lambda where possible, and a handwritten function object where not. On the other hand, lambdas and function objects don't overload; if you need to overload, prefer a function (the workarounds to make lambdas overload are ornate). If either will work, prefer writing a function; use the simplest tool necessary.
// writing a function that should only take an int or a string
// -- overloading is natural
void f(int);
void f(const string&);
// writing a function object that needs to capture local state and appear
// at statement or expression scope -- a lambda is natural
vector<work> v = lots_of_work();
for (int tasknum = 0; tasknum < max; ++tasknum) {
pool.run([=, &v]{
/*
...
... process 1 / max - th of v, the tasknum - th chunk
...
*/
});
}
pool.join();
Generic lambdas offer a concise way to write function templates and so can be useful even when a normal function template would do equally well with a little more syntax. This advantage will probably disappear in the future once all functions gain the ability to have Concept parameters.
auto x = [](int i){ /*...*/; };) that captures nothing and appears at global scope. Write an ordinary function instead.Default arguments simply provides alternative interfaces to a single implementation. There is no guarantee that a set of overloaded functions all implement the same semantics. The use of default arguments can avoid code replication.
There is a choice between using default argument and overloading when the alternatives are from a set of arguments of the same types. For example:
void print(const string& s, format f = {});
as opposed to
void print(const string& s); // use default format
void print(const string& s, format f);
There is not a choice when a set of functions are used to do a semantically equivalent operation to a set of types. For example:
void print(const char&);
void print(int);
void print(zstring);
[Default arguments for virtual functions](#Rh-virtual-default-arg)
???
For efficiency and correctness, you nearly always want to capture by reference when using the lambda locally. This includes when writing or calling parallel algorithms that are local because they join before returning.
This is a simple three-stage parallel pipeline. Each stage object encapsulates a worker thread and a queue, has a process function to enqueue work, and in its destructor automatically blocks waiting for the queue to empty before ending the thread.
void send_packets(buffers& bufs)
{
stage encryptor([] (buffer& b){ encrypt(b); });
stage compressor([&](buffer& b){ compress(b); encryptor.process(b); });
stage decorator([&](buffer& b){ decorate(b); compressor.process(b); });
for (auto& b : bufs) { decorator.process(b); }
} // automatically blocks waiting for pipeline to finish
???
Pointers and references to locals shouldn't outlive their scope. Lambdas that capture by reference are just another place to store a reference to a local object, and shouldn't do so if they (or a copy) outlive the scope.
int local = 42;
// Want a reference to local.
// Note, that after program exits this scope,
// local no longer exists, therefore
// process() call will have undefined behavior!
thread_pool.queue_work([&]{ process(local); });
int local = 42;
// Want a copy of local.
// Since a copy of local is made, it will be
// available at all times for the call.
thread_pool.queue_work([=]{ process(local); });
const and non-local contextthis, capture all variables explicitly (no default capture)It's confusing. Writing [=] in a member function appears to capture by value, but actually captures data members by reference because it actually captures the invisible this pointer by value. If you meant to do that, write this explicitly.
class My_class {
int x = 0;
// ...
void f() {
int i = 0;
// ...
auto lambda = [=]{ use(i, x); }; // BAD: "looks like" copy/value capture
// [&] has identical semantics and copies the this pointer under the current rules
// [=,this] and [&,this] are not much better, and confusing
x = 42;
lambda(); // calls use(42);
x = 43;
lambda(); // calls use(43);
// ...
auto lambda2 = [i, this]{ use(i, x); }; // ok, most explicit and least confusing
// ...
}
};
This is under active discussion in standardization, and may be addressed in a future version of the standard by adding a new capture mode or possibly adjusting the meaning of [=]. For now, just be explicit.
this (whether explicitly or via default capture)A class is a user-defined type, for which a programmer can define the representation, operations, and interfaces. Class hierarchies are used to organize related classes into hierarchical structures.
Class rule summary:
structs or classes)](#Rc-org)class if the class has an invariant; use struct if the data members can vary independently](#Rc-struct)class rather than struct if any member is non-public](#Rc-class)Subsections:
structs or classes)Ease of comprehension. If data is related (for fundamental reasons), that fact should be reflected in code.
void draw(int x, int y, int x2, int y2); // BAD: unnecessary implicit relationships
void draw(Point from, Point to); // better
A simple class without virtual functions implies no space or time overhead.
From a language perspective class and struct differ only in the default visibility of their members.
Probably impossible. Maybe a heuristic looking for data items used together is possible.
class if the class has an invariant; use struct if the data members can vary independentlyReadability.
Ease of comprehension.
The use of class alerts the programmer to the need for an invariant.
This is a useful convention.
An invariant is a logical condition for the members of an object that a constructor must establish for the public member functions to assume.
After the invariant is established (typically by a constructor) every member function can be called for the object.
An invariant can be stated informally (e.g., in a comment) or more formally using Expects.
If all data members can vary independently of each other, no invariant is possible.
struct Pair { // the members can vary independently
string name;
int volume;
};
but:
class Date {
public:
// validate that {yy, mm, dd} is a valid date and initialize
Date(int yy, Month mm, char dd);
// ...
private:
int y;
Month m;
char d; // day
};
If a class has any private data, a user cannot completely initialize an object without the use of a constructor.
Hence, the class definer will provide a constructor and must specify its meaning.
This effectively means the definer need to define an invariant.
class](#Rc-class).protected data](#Rh-protected).Look for structs with all data private and classes with public members.
An explicit distinction between interface and implementation improves readability and simplifies maintenance.
class Date {
// ... some representation ...
public:
Date();
// validate that {yy, mm, dd} is a valid date and initialize
Date(int yy, Month mm, char dd);
int day() const;
Month month() const;
// ...
};
For example, we can now change the representation of a Date without affecting its users (recompilation is likely, though).
Using a class in this way to represent the distinction between interface and implementation is of course not the only way.
For example, we can use a set of declarations of freestanding functions in a namespace, an abstract base class, or a template function with concepts to represent an interface.
The most important issue is to explicitly distinguish between an interface and its implementation details.
Ideally, and typically, an interface is far more stable than its implementation(s).
???
Less coupling than with member functions, fewer functions that can cause trouble by modifying object state, reduces the number of functions that needs to be modified after a change in representation.
class Date {
// ... relatively small interface ...
};
// helper functions:
Date next_weekday(Date);
bool operator==(Date, Date);
The helper functions
have no need for direct access to the representation of a Date.
This rule becomes even better if C++ gets uniform function call
.
Look for member function that do not touch data members directly. The snag is that many member functions that do not need to touch data members directly do.
A helper function is a function (usually supplied by the writer of a class) that does not need direct access to the representation of the class, yet is seen as part of the useful interface to the class. Placing them in the same namespace as the class makes their relationship to the class obvious and allows them to be found by argument dependent lookup.
namespace Chrono { // here we keep time-related services
class Time { /* ... */ };
class Date { /* ... */ };
// helper functions:
bool operator==(Date, Date);
Date next_weekday(Date);
// ...
}
This is especially important for [overloaded operators](#Ro-namespace).
Mixing a type definition and the definition of another entity in the same declaration is confusing and unnecessary.
struct Data { /*...*/ } data{ /*...*/ };
struct Data { /*...*/ };
Data data{ /*...*/ };
} of a class or enumeration definition is not followed by a ;. The ; is missing.class rather than struct if any member is non-publicReadability. To make it clear that something is being hidden/abstracted. This is a useful convention.
struct Date {
int d, m;
Date(int i, Month m);
// ... lots of functions ...
private:
int y; // year
};
There is nothing wrong with this code as far as the C++ language rules are concerned, but nearly everything is wrong from a design perspective. The private data is hidden far from the public data. The data is split in different parts of the class declaration. Different parts of the data have different access. All of this decreases readability and complicates maintenance.
Prefer to place the interface first in a class [see](#Rl-order).
Flag classes declared with struct if there is a private or public member.
Encapsulation. Information hiding. Minimize the chance of untended access. This simplifies maintenance.
???
Prefer the order public members before protected members before private members [see](#Rl-order).
Flag protected data.
One ideal for a class is to be a regular type.
That means roughly behaves like an `int`.
A concrete type is the simplest kind of class.
A value of regular type can be copied and the result of a copy is an independent object with the same value as the original.
If a concrete type has both = and ==, a = b should result in a == b being true.
Concrete classes without assignment and equality can be defined, but they are (and should be) rare.
The C++ built-in types are regular, and so are standard-library classes, such as string, vector, and map.
Concrete types are also often referred to as value types to distinguish them from types used as part of a hierarchy.
Concrete type rule summary:
A concrete type is fundamentally simpler than a hierarchy: easier to design, easier to implement, easier to use, easier to reason about, smaller, and faster. You need a reason (use cases) for using a hierarchy.
class Point1 {
int x, y;
// ... operations ...
// ... no virtual functions ...
};
class Point2 {
int x, y;
// ... operations, some virtual ...
virtual ~Point2();
};
void use()
{
Point1 p11 {1, 2}; // make an object on the stack
Point1 p12 {p11}; // a copy
auto p21 = make_unique<Point2>(1, 2); // make an object on the free store
auto p22 = p21.clone(); // make a copy
// ...
}
If a class can be part of a hierarchy, we (in real code if not necessarily in small examples) must manipulate its objects through pointers or references. That implies more memory overhead, more allocations and deallocations, and more run-time overhead to perform the resulting indirections.
Concrete types can be stack allocated and be members of other classes.
The use of indirection is fundamental for run-time polymorphic interfaces. The allocation/deallocation overhead is not (that's just the most common case). We can use a base class as the interface of a scoped object of a derived class. This is done where dynamic allocation is prohibited (e.g. hard real-time) and to provide a stable interface to some kinds of plug-ins.
???
Regular types are easier to understand and reason about than types that are not regular (irregularities requires extra effort to understand and use).
struct Bundle {
string name;
vector<Record> vr;
};
bool operator==(const Bundle& a, const Bundle& b)
{
return a.name == b.name && a.vr == b.vr;
}
Bundle b1 { "my bundle", {r1, r2, r3}};
Bundle b2 = b1;
if (!(b1 == b2)) error("impossible!");
b2.name = "the other bundle";
if (b1 == b2) error("No!");
In particular, if a concrete type has an assignment also give it an equals operator so that a = b implies a == b.
???
These functions control the lifecycle of objects: creation, copy, move, and destruction. Define constructors to guarantee and simplify initialization of classes.
These are default operations:
X()X(const X&)operator=(const X&)X(X&&)operator=(X&&)~X()By default, the compiler defines each of these operations if it is used, but the default can be suppressed.
The default operations are a set of related operations that together implement the lifecycle semantics of an object. By default, C++ treats classes as value-like types, but not all types are value-like.
Set of default operations rules:
=delete any default operation, define or =delete them all](#Rc-five)Destructor rules:
T*) or reference (T&), consider whether it might be owning](#Rc-dtor-ptr)=delete a destructor](#Rc-dtor-ptr2)=delete a destructor](#Rc-dtor-ref)noexcept](#Rc-dtor-noexcept)Constructor rules:
explicit](#Rc-explicit)virtual behaviorduring initialization](#Rc-factory)
Copy and move rules:
virtual, take the parameter by const&, and return by non-const&](#Rc-copy-assignment)virtual, take the parameter by &&, and return by non-const&](#Rc-move-assignment)noexcept](#Rc-move-noexcept)clone instead if copyingis desired](#Rc-copy-virtual)
Other default operations rules:
=default if you have to be explicit about using the default semantics](#Rc-eqdefault)=delete when you want to disable default behavior (without wanting an alternative)](#Rc-delete)noexcept swap function](#Rc-swap)swap may not fail](#Rc-swap-fail)swap noexcept](#Rc-swap-noexcept)== symmetric with respect of operand types and noexcept](#Rc-eq)== on base classes](#Rc-eq-base)hash noexcept](#Rc-hash)By default, the language supplies the default operations with their default semantics. However, a programmer can disable or replace these defaults.
It's the simplest and gives the cleanest semantics.
struct Named_map {
public:
// ... no default operations declared ...
private:
string name;
map<int, int> rep;
};
Named_map nm; // default construct
Named_map nm2 {nm}; // copy construct
Since std::map and string have all the special functions, no further work is needed.
This is known as the rule of zero
.
(Not enforceable) While not enforceable, a good static analyzer can detect patterns that indicate a possible improvement to meet this rule.
For example, a class with a (pointer, size) pair of member and a destructor that deletes the pointer could probably be converted to a vector.
=delete any default operation, define or =delete them allThe semantics of the special functions are closely related, so if one needs to be non-default, the odds are that others need modification too.
struct M2 { // bad: incomplete set of default operations
public:
// ...
// ... no copy or move operations ...
~M2() { delete[] rep; }
private:
pair<int, int>* rep; // zero-terminated set of pairs
};
void use()
{
M2 x;
M2 y;
// ...
x = y; // the default assignment
// ...
}
Given that special attention
was needed for the destructor (here, to deallocate), the likelihood that copy and move assignment (both will implicitly destroy an object) are correct is low (here, we would get double deletion).
This is known as the rule of five
or the rule of six
, depending on whether you count the default constructor.
If you want a default implementation of a default operation (while defining another), write =default to show you're doing so intentionally for that function.
If you don't want a default operation, suppress it with =delete.
Compilers enforce much of this rule and ideally warn about any violation.
Relying on an implicitly generated copy operation in a class with a destructor is deprecated.
(Simple) A class should have a declaration (even a =delete one) for either all or none of the special functions.
The default operations are conceptually a matched set. Their semantics are interrelated. Users will be surprised if copy/move construction and copy/move assignment do logically different things. Users will be surprised if constructors and destructors do not provide a consistent view of resource management. Users will be surprised if copy and move don't reflect the way constructors and destructors work.
class Silly { // BAD: Inconsistent copy operations
class Impl {
// ...
};
shared_ptr<Impl> p;
public:
Silly(const Silly& a) : p{a.p} { *p = *a.p; } // deep copy
Silly& operator=(const Silly& a) { p = a.p; } // shallow copy
// ...
};
These operations disagree about copy semantics. This will lead to confusion and bugs.
Does this class need a destructor?
is a surprisingly powerful design question.
For most classes the answer is no
either because the class holds no resources or because destruction is handled by [the rule of zero](#Rc-zero);
that is, its members can take care of themselves as concerns destruction.
If the answer is yes
, much of the design of the class follows (see [the rule of five](#Rc-five)).
A destructor is implicitly invoked at the end of an object's lifetime. If the default destructor is sufficient, use it. Only define a non-default destructor if a class needs to execute code that is not already part of its members' destructors.
template<typename A>
struct final_action { // slightly simplified
A act;
final_action(A a) :act{a} {}
~final_action() { act(); }
};
template<typename A>
final_action<A> finally(A act) // deduce action type
{
return final_action<A>{act};
}
void test()
{
auto act = finally([]{ cout << "Exit test\n"; }); // establish exit action
// ...
if (something) return; // act done here
// ...
} // act done here
The whole purpose of final_action is to get a piece of code (usually a lambda) executed upon destruction.
There are two general categories of classes that need a user-defined destructor:
vector or a transaction class.final_action.class Foo { // bad; use the default destructor
public:
// ...
~Foo() { s = ""; i = 0; vi.clear(); } // clean up
private:
string s;
int i;
vector<int> vi;
};
The default destructor does it better, more efficiently, and can't get it wrong.
If the default destructor is needed, but its generation has been suppressed (e.g., by defining a move constructor), use =default.
Look for likely implicit resources
, such as pointers and references. Look for classes with destructors even though all their data members have destructors.
Prevention of resource leaks, especially in error cases.
For resources represented as classes with a complete set of default operations, this happens automatically.
class X {
ifstream f; // may own a file
// ... no default operations defined or =deleted ...
};
X's ifstream implicitly closes any file it may have open upon destruction of its X.
class X2 { // bad
FILE* f; // may own a file
// ... no default operations defined or =deleted ...
};
X2 may leak a file handle.
What about a sockets that won't close? A destructor, close, or cleanup operation [should never fail](#Rc-dtor-fail).
If it does nevertheless, we have a problem that has no really good solution.
For starters, the writer of a destructor does not know why the destructor is called and cannot refuse to act
by throwing an exception.
See [discussion](#Sd-never-fail).
To make the problem worse, many close/release
operations are not retryable.
Many have tried to solve this problem, but no general solution is known.
If at all possible, consider failure to close/cleanup a fundamental design error and terminate.
A class can hold pointers and references to objects that it does not own.
Obviously, such objects should not be deleted by the class's destructor.
For example:
Preprocessor pp { /* ... */ };
Parser p { pp, /* ... */ };
Type_checker tc { p, /* ... */ };
Here p refers to pp but does not own it.
gsl::owner), then they should be referenced in its destructor.T*) or reference (T&), consider whether it might be owningThere is a lot of code that is non-specific about ownership.
???
If the T* or T& is owning, mark it owning. If the T* is not owning, consider marking it ptr.
This will aid documentation and analysis.
Look at the initialization of raw member pointers and member references and see if an allocation is used.
An owned object must be deleted upon destruction of the object that owns it.
A pointer member may represent a resource.
[A T* should not do so](#Rr-ptr), but in older code, that's common.
Consider a T* a possible owner and therefore suspect.
template<typename T>
class Smart_ptr {
T* p; // BAD: vague about ownership of *p
// ...
public:
// ... no user-defined default operations ...
};
void use(Smart_ptr<int> p1)
{
// error: p2.p leaked (if not nullptr and not owned by some other code)
auto p2 = p1;
}
Note that if you define a destructor, you must define or delete [all default operations](#Rc-five):
template<typename T>
class Smart_ptr2 {
T* p; // BAD: vague about ownership of *p
// ...
public:
// ... no user-defined copy operations ...
~Smart_ptr2() { delete p; } // p is an owner!
};
void use(Smart_ptr2<int> p1)
{
auto p2 = p1; // error: double deletion
}
The default copy operation will just copy the p1.p into p2.p leading to a double destruction of p1.p. Be explicit about ownership:
template<typename T>
class Smart_ptr3 {
owner<T*> p; // OK: explicit about ownership of *p
// ...
public:
// ...
// ... copy and move operations ...
~Smart_ptr3() { delete p; }
};
void use(Smart_ptr3<int> p1)
{
auto p2 = p1; // error: double deletion
}
Often the simplest way to get a destructor is to replace the pointer with a smart pointer (e.g., std::unique_ptr) and let the compiler arrange for proper destruction to be done implicitly.
Why not just require all owning pointers to be smart pointers
?
That would sometimes require non-trivial code changes and may affect ABIs.
owner<T> should define its default operations.A reference member may represent a resource. It should not do so, but in older code, that's common. See [pointer members and destructors](#Rc-dtor-ptr). Also, copying may lead to slicing.
class Handle { // Very suspect
Shape& s; // use reference rather than pointer to prevent rebinding
// BAD: vague about ownership of *p
// ...
public:
Handle(Shape& ss) : s{ss} { /* ... */ }
// ...
};
The problem of whether Handle is responsible for the destruction of its Shape is the same as for [the pointer case](#Rc-dtor-ptr):
If the Handle owns the object referred to by s it must have a destructor.
class Handle { // OK
owner<Shape&> s; // use reference rather than pointer to prevent rebinding
// ...
public:
Handle(Shape& ss) : s{ss} { /* ... */ }
~Handle() { delete &s; }
// ...
};
Independently of whether Handle owns its Shape, we must consider the default copy operations suspect:
// the Handle had better own the Circle or we have a leak
Handle x {*new Circle{p1, 17}};
Handle y {*new Triangle{p1, p2, p3}};
x = y; // the default assignment will try *x.s = *y.s
That x = y is highly suspect.
Assigning a Triangle to a Circle?
Unless Shape has its [copy assignment =deleted](#Rc-copy-virtual), only the Shape part of Triangle is copied into the Circle.
Why not just require all owning references to be replaced by smart pointers
?
Changing from references to smart pointers implies code changes.
We don't (yet) have smart references.
Also, that may affect ABIs.
owner<T> reference should define its default operations.To prevent undefined behavior. If the destructor is public, then calling code can attempt to destroy a derived class object through a base class pointer, and the result is undefined if the base class's destructor is non-virtual. If the destructor is protected, then calling code cannot destroy through a base class pointer and the destructor does not need to be virtual; it does need to be protected, not private, so that derived destructors can invoke it. In general, the writer of a base class does not know the appropriate action to be done upon destruction.
See [this in the Discussion section](#Sd-dtor).
struct Base { // BAD: no virtual destructor
virtual void f();
};
struct D : Base {
string s {"a resource needing cleanup"};
~D() { /* ... do some cleanup ... */ }
// ...
};
void use()
{
unique_ptr<Base> p = make_unique<D>();
// ...
} // p's destruction calls ~Base(), not ~D(), which leaks D::s and possibly more
A virtual function defines an interface to derived classes that can be used without looking at the derived classes. If the interface allows destroying, it should be safe to do so.
A destructor must be nonprivate or it will prevent using the type :
class X {
~X(); // private destructor
// ...
};
void use()
{
X a; // error: cannot destroy
auto p = make_unique<X>(); // error: cannot destroy
}
We can imagine one case where you could want a protected virtual destructor: When an object of a derived type (and only of such a type) should be allowed to destroy another object (not itself) through a pointer to base. We haven't seen such a case in practice, though.
In general we do not know how to write error-free code if a destructor should fail. The standard library requires that all classes it deals with have destructors that do not exit by throwing.
class X {
public:
~X() noexcept;
// ...
};
X::~X() noexcept
{
// ...
if (cannot_release_a_resource) terminate();
// ...
}
Many have tried to devise a fool-proof scheme for dealing with failure in destructors.
None have succeeded to come up with a general scheme.
This can be a real practical problem: For example, what about a socket that won't close?
The writer of a destructor does not know why the destructor is called and cannot refuse to act
by throwing an exception.
See [discussion](#Sd-dtor).
To make the problem worse, many close/release
operations are not retryable.
If at all possible, consider failure to close/cleanup a fundamental design error and terminate.
Declare a destructor noexcept. That will ensure that it either completes normally or terminate the program.
If a resource cannot be released and the program may not fail, try to signal the failure to the rest of the system somehow
(maybe even by modifying some global state and hope something will notice and be able to take care of the problem).
Be fully aware that this technique is special-purpose and error-prone.
Consider the my connection will not close
example.
Probably there is a problem at the other end of the connection and only a piece of code responsible for both ends of the connection can properly handle the problem.
The destructor could send a message (somehow) to the responsible part of the system, consider that to have closed the connection, and return normally.
If a destructor uses operations that may fail, it can catch exceptions and in some cases still complete successfully (e.g., by using a different clean-up mechanism from the one that threw an exception).
(Simple) A destructor should be declared noexcept.
noexcept[A destructor may not fail](#Rc-dtor-fail). If a destructor tries to exit with an exception, it's a bad design error and the program had better terminate.
A destructor (either user-defined or compiler-generated) is implicitly declared noexcept (independently of what code is in its body) if all of the members of its class have noexcept destructors.
(Simple) A destructor should be declared noexcept.
A constructor defines how an object is initialized (constructed).
That's what constructors are for.
class Date { // a Date represents a valid date
// in the January 1, 1900 to December 31, 2100 range
Date(int dd, int mm, int yy)
:d{dd}, m{mm}, y{yy}
{
if (!is_valid(d, m, y)) throw Bad_date{}; // enforce invariant
}
// ...
private:
int d, m, y;
};
It is often a good idea to express the invariant as an Ensures on the constructor.
A constructor can be used for convenience even if a class does not have an invariant. For example:
struct Rec {
string s;
int i {0};
Rec(const string& ss) : s{ss} {}
Rec(int ii) :i{ii} {}
};
Rec r1 {7};
Rec r2 {"Foo bar"};
The C++11 initializer list rule eliminates the need for many constructors. For example:
struct Rec2{
string s;
int i;
Rec2(const string& ss, int ii = 0) :s{ss}, i{ii} {} // redundant
};
Rec2 r1 {"Foo", 7};
Rec2 r2 {"Bar"};
The Rec2 constructor is redundant.
Also, the default for int would be better done as a [member initializer](#Rc-in-class-initializer).
See also: [construct valid object](#Rc-complete) and [constructor throws](#Rc-throw).
A constructor establishes the invariant for a class. A user of a class should be able to assume that a constructed object is usable.
class X1 {
FILE* f; // call init() before any other function
// ...
public:
X1() {}
void init(); // initialize f
void read(); // read from f
// ...
};
void f()
{
X1 file;
file.read(); // crash or bad read!
// ...
file.init(); // too late
// ...
}
Compilers do not read comments.
If a valid object cannot conveniently be constructed by a constructor, [use a factory function](#Rc-factory).
Ensures contract, try to see if it holds as a postcondition.If a constructor acquires a resource (to create a valid object), that resource should be [released by the destructor](#Rc-dtor-release).
The idiom of having constructors acquire resources and destructors release them is called [RAII](#Rr-raii) (Resource Acquisition Is Initialization
).
Leaving behind an invalid object is asking for trouble.
class X2 {
FILE* f; // call init() before any other function
// ...
public:
X2(const string& name)
:f{fopen(name.c_str(), "r")}
{
if (f == nullptr) throw runtime_error{"could not open" + name};
// ...
}
void read(); // read from f
// ...
};
void f()
{
X2 file {"Zeno"}; // throws if file isn't open
file.read(); // fine
// ...
}
class X3 { // bad: the constructor leaves a non-valid object behind
FILE* f; // call init() before any other function
bool valid;
// ...
public:
X3(const string& name)
:f{fopen(name.c_str(), "r")}, valid{false}
{
if (f) valid = true;
// ...
}
bool is_valid() { return valid; }
void read(); // read from f
// ...
};
void f()
{
X3 file {"Heraclides"};
file.read(); // crash or bad read!
// ...
if (file.is_valid()) {
file.read();
// ...
}
else {
// ... handle error ...
}
// ...
}
For a variable definition (e.g., on the stack or as a member of another object) there is no explicit function call from which an error code could be returned.
Leaving behind an invalid object and relying on users to consistently check an is_valid() function before use is tedious, error-prone, and inefficient.
There are domains, such as some hard-real-time systems (think airplane controls) where (without additional tool support) exception handling is not sufficiently predictable from a timing perspective.
There the is_valid() technique must be used. In such cases, check is_valid() consistently and immediately to simulate [RAII](#Rr-raii).
Alternative: If you feel tempted to use some post-constructor initialization
or two-stage initialization
idiom, try not to do that.
If you really have to, look at [factory functions](#Rc-factory).
One reason people have used init() functions rather than doing the initialization work in a constructor has been to avoid code replication.
[Delegating constructors](#Rc-delegating) and [default member initialization](#Rc-in-class-initializer) do that better.
Another reason is been to delay initialization until an object is needed; the solution to that is often [not to declare a variable until it can be properly initialized](#Res-init)
Many language and library facilities rely on default constructors to initialize their elements, e.g. T a[10] and std::vector<T> v(10).
class Date { // BAD: no default constructor
public:
Date(int dd, int mm, int yyyy);
// ...
};
vector<Date> vd1(1000); // default Date needed here
vector<Date> vd2(1000, Date{Month::october, 7, 1885}); // alternative
The default constructor is only auto-generated if there is no user-declared constructor, hence it's impossible to initialize the vector vd1 in the example above.
There is no natural
default date (the big bang is too far back in time to be useful for most people), so this example is non-trivial.
{0, 0, 0} is not a valid date in most calendar systems, so choosing that would be introducing something like floating-point's NaN.
However, most realistic Date classes have a first date
(e.g. January 1, 1970 is popular), so making that the default is usually trivial.
class Date {
public:
Date(int dd, int mm, int yyyy);
Date() = default; // See also C.45
// ...
private:
int dd = 1;
int mm = 1;
int yyyy = 1970;
// ...
};
vector<Date> vd1(1000);
A class with members that all have default constructors implicitly gets a default constructor:
struct X {
string s;
vector<int> v;
};
X x; // means X{{}, {}}; that is the empty string and the empty vector
Beware that built-in types are not properly default constructed:
struct X {
string s;
int i;
};
void f()
{
X x; // x.s is initialized to the empty string; x.i is uninitialized
cout << x.s << ' ' << x.i << '\n';
++x.i;
}
Statically allocated objects of built-in types are by default initialized to 0, but local built-in variables are not.
Beware that your compiler may default initialize local built-in variables, whereas an optimized build will not.
Thus, code like the example above may appear to work, but it relies on undefined behavior.
Assuming that you want initialization, an explicit default initialization can help:
struct X {
string s;
int i {}; // default initialize (to 0)
};
Being able to set a value to the default
without operations that might fail simplifies error handling and reasoning about move operations.
template<typename T>
// elem points to space-elem element allocated using new
class Vector0 {
public:
Vector0() :Vector0{0} {}
Vector0(int n) :elem{new T[n]}, space{elem + n}, last{elem} {}
// ...
private:
own<T*> elem;
T* space;
T* last;
};
This is nice and general, but setting a Vector0 to empty after an error involves an allocation, which may fail.
Also, having a default Vector represented as {new T[0], 0, 0} seems wasteful.
For example, Vector0 v(100) costs 100 allocations.
template<typename T>
// elem is nullptr or elem points to space-elem element allocated using new
class Vector1 {
public:
// sets the representation to {nullptr, nullptr, nullptr}; doesn't throw
Vector1() noexcept {}
Vector1(int n) :elem{new T[n]}, space{elem + n}, last{elem} {}
// ...
private:
own<T*> elem = nullptr;
T* space = nullptr;
T* last = nullptr;
};
Using {nullptr, nullptr, nullptr} makes Vector1{} cheap, but a special case and implies run-time checks.
Setting a Vector1 to empty after detecting an error is trivial.
Using in-class member initializers lets the compiler generate the function for you. The compiler-generated function can be more efficient.
class X1 { // BAD: doesn't use member initializers
string s;
int i;
public:
X1() :s{"default"}, i{1} { }
// ...
};
class X2 {
string s = "default";
int i = 1;
public:
// use compiler-generated default constructor
// ...
};
(Simple) A default constructor should do more than just initialize member variables with constants.
To avoid unintended conversions.
class String {
// ...
public:
String(int); // BAD
// ...
};
String s = 10; // surprise: string of size 10
If you really want an implicit conversion from the constructor argument type to the class type, don't use explicit:
class Complex {
// ...
public:
Complex(double d); // OK: we want a conversion from d to {d, 0}
// ...
};
Complex z = 10.7; // unsurprising conversion
See also: [Discussion of implicit conversions](#Ro-conversion).
(Simple) Single-argument constructors should be declared explicit. Good single argument non-explicit constructors are rare in most code based. Warn for all that are not on a positive list
.
To minimize confusion and errors. That is the order in which the initialization happens (independent of the order of member initializers).
class Foo {
int m1;
int m2;
public:
Foo(int x) :m2{x}, m1{++x} { } // BAD: misleading initializer order
// ...
};
Foo x(1); // surprise: x.m1 == x.m2 == 2
(Simple) A member initializer list should mention the members in the same order they are declared.
See also: [Discussion](#Sd-order)
Makes it explicit that the same value is expected to be used in all constructors. Avoids repetition. Avoids maintenance problems. It leads to the shortest and most efficient code.
class X { // BAD
int i;
string s;
int j;
public:
X() :i{666}, s{"qqq"} { } // j is uninitialized
X(int ii) :i{ii} {} // s is "" and j is uninitialized
// ...
};
How would a maintainer know whether j was deliberately uninitialized (probably a poor idea anyway) and whether it was intentional to give s the default value "" in one case and qqq in another (almost certainly a bug)? The problem with j (forgetting to initialize a member) often happens when a new member is added to an existing class.
class X2 {
int i {666};
string s {"qqq"};
int j {0};
public:
X2() = default; // all members are initialized to their defaults
X2(int ii) :i{ii} {} // s and j initialized to their defaults
// ...
};
Alternative: We can get part of the benefits from default arguments to constructors, and that is not uncommon in older code. However, that is less explicit, causes more arguments to be passed, and is repetitive when there is more than one constructor:
class X3 { // BAD: inexplicit, argument passing overhead
int i;
string s;
int j;
public:
X3(int ii = 666, const string& ss = "qqq", int jj = 0)
:i{ii}, s{ss}, j{jj} { } // all members are initialized to their defaults
// ...
};
An initialization explicitly states that initialization, rather than assignment, is done and can be more elegant and efficient. Prevents use before set
errors.
class A { // Good
string s1;
public:
A() : s1{"Hello, "} { } // GOOD: directly construct
// ...
};
class B { // BAD
string s1;
public:
B() { s1 = "Hello, "; } // BAD: default constructor followed by assignment
// ...
};
class C { // UGLY, aka very bad
int* p;
public:
C() { cout << *p; p = new int{10}; } // accidental use before initialized
// ...
};
virtual behaviorduring initialization
If the state of a base class object must depend on the state of a derived part of the object, we need to use a virtual function (or equivalent) while minimizing the window of opportunity to misuse an imperfectly constructed object.
class B {
public:
B()
{
// ...
f(); // BAD: virtual call in constructor
// ...
}
virtual void f() = 0;
// ...
};
class B {
protected:
B() { /* ... */ } // create an imperfectly initialized object
virtual void PostInitialize() // to be called right after construction
{
// ...
f(); // GOOD: virtual dispatch is safe
// ...
}
public:
virtual void f() = 0;
template<class T>
static shared_ptr<T> Create() // interface for creating objects
{
auto p = make_shared<T>();
p->PostInitialize();
return p;
}
};
class D : public B { /* ... */ }; // some derived class
shared_ptr<D> p = D::Create<D>(); // creating a D object
By making the constructor protected we avoid an incompletely constructed object escaping into the wild.
By providing the factory function Create(), we make construction (on the free store) convenient.
Conventional factory functions allocate on the free store, rather than on the stack or in an enclosing object.
See also: [Discussion](#Sd-factory)
To avoid repetition and accidental differences.
class Date { // BAD: repetitive
int d;
Month m;
int y;
public:
Date(int ii, Month mm, year yy)
:i{ii}, m{mm}, y{yy}
{ if (!valid(i, m, y)) throw Bad_date{}; }
Date(int ii, Month mm)
:i{ii}, m{mm} y{current_year()}
{ if (!valid(i, m, y)) throw Bad_date{}; }
// ...
};
The common action gets tedious to write and may accidentally not be common.
class Date2 {
int d;
Month m;
int y;
public:
Date2(int ii, Month mm, year yy)
:i{ii}, m{mm}, y{yy}
{ if (!valid(i, m, y)) throw Bad_date{}; }
Date2(int ii, Month mm)
:Date2{ii, mm, current_year()} {}
// ...
};
See also: If the repeated action
is a simple initialization, consider [an in-class member initializer](#Rc-in-class-initializer).
(Moderate) Look for similar constructor bodies.
If you need those constructors for a derived class, re-implementing them is tedious and error prone.
std::vector has a lot of tricky constructors, so if I want my own vector, I don't want to reimplement them:
class Rec {
// ... data and lots of nice constructors ...
};
class Oper : public Rec {
using Rec::Rec;
// ... no data members ...
// ... lots of nice utility functions ...
};
struct Rec2 : public Rec {
int x;
using Rec::Rec;
};
Rec2 r {"foo", 7};
int val = r.x; // uninitialized
Make sure that every member of the derived class is initialized.
Value types should generally be copyable, but interfaces in a class hierarchy should not. Resource handles may or may not be copyable. Types can be defined to move for logical as well as performance reasons.
virtual, take the parameter by const&, and return by non-const&It is simple and efficient. If you want to optimize for rvalues, provide an overload that takes a && (see [F.24](#Rf-pass-ref-ref)).
class Foo {
public:
Foo& operator=(const Foo& x)
{
// GOOD: no need to check for self-assignment (other than performance)
auto tmp = x;
std::swap(*this, tmp);
return *this;
}
// ...
};
Foo a;
Foo b;
Foo f();
a = b; // assign lvalue: copy
a = f(); // assign rvalue: potentially move
The swap implementation technique offers the [strong guarantee](???).
But what if you can get significantly better performance by not making a temporary copy? Consider a simple Vector intended for a domain where assignment of large, equal-sized Vectors is common. In this case, the copy of elements implied by the swap implementation technique could cause an order of magnitude increase in cost:
template<typename T>
class Vector {
public:
Vector& operator=(const Vector&);
// ...
private:
T* elem;
int sz;
};
Vector& Vector::operator=(const Vector& a)
{
if (a.sz > sz) {
// ... use the swap technique, it can't be bettered ...
return *this
}
// ... copy sz elements from *a.elem to elem ...
if (a.sz < sz) {
// ... destroy the surplus elements in *this* and adjust size ...
}
return *this;
}
By writing directly to the target elements, we will get only [the basic guarantee](#???) rather than the strong guarantee offered by the swap technique. Beware of [self assignment](#Rc-copy-self).
Alternatives: If you think you need a virtual assignment operator, and understand why that's deeply problematic, don't call it operator=. Make it a named function like virtual void assign(const Foo&).
See [copy constructor vs. clone()](#Rc-copy-virtual).
T& to enable chaining, not alternatives like const T& which interfere with composability and putting objects in containers.That is the generally assumed semantics. After x = y, we should have x == y.
After a copy x and y can be independent objects (value semantics, the way non-pointer built-in types and the standard-library types work) or refer to a shared object (pointer semantics, the way pointers work).
class X { // OK: value semantics
public:
X();
X(const X&); // copy X
void modify(); // change the value of X
// ...
~X() { delete[] p; }
private:
T* p;
int sz;
};
bool operator==(const X& a, const X& b)
{
return a.sz == b.sz && equal(a.p, a.p + a.sz, b.p, b.p + b.sz);
}
X::X(const X& a)
:p{new T[a.sz]}, sz{a.sz}
{
copy(a.p, a.p + sz, a.p);
}
X x;
X y = x;
if (x != y) throw Bad{};
x.modify();
if (x == y) throw Bad{}; // assume value semantics
class X2 { // OK: pointer semantics
public:
X2();
X2(const X&) = default; // shallow copy
~X2() = default;
void modify(); // change the value of X
// ...
private:
T* p;
int sz;
};
bool operator==(const X2& a, const X2& b)
{
return a.sz == b.sz && a.p == b.p;
}
X2 x;
X2 y = x;
if (x != y) throw Bad{};
x.modify();
if (x != y) throw Bad{}; // assume pointer semantics
Prefer copy semantics unless you are building a smart pointer
. Value semantics is the simplest to reason about and what the standard library facilities expect.
(Not enforceable)
If x = x changes the value of x, people will be surprised and bad errors will occur (often including leaks).
The standard-library containers handle self-assignment elegantly and efficiently:
std::vector<int> v = {3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9};
v = v;
// the value of v is still {3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9}
The default assignment generated from members that handle self-assignment correctly handles self-assignment.
struct Bar {
vector<pair<int, int>> v;
map<string, int> m;
string s;
};
Bar b;
// ...
b = b; // correct and efficient
You can handle self-assignment by explicitly testing for self-assignment, but often it is faster and more elegant to cope without such a test (e.g., [using swap](#Rc-swap)).
class Foo {
string s;
int i;
public:
Foo& operator=(const Foo& a);
// ...
};
Foo& Foo::operator=(const Foo& a) // OK, but there is a cost
{
if (this == &a) return *this;
s = a.s;
i = a.i;
return *this;
}
This is obviously safe and apparently efficient. However, what if we do one self-assignment per million assignments? That's about a million redundant tests (but since the answer is essentially always the same, the computer's branch predictor will guess right essentially every time). Consider:
Foo& Foo::operator=(const Foo& a) // simpler, and probably much better
{
s = a.s;
i = a.i;
return *this;
}
std::string is safe for self-assignment and so are int. All the cost is carried by the (rare) case of self-assignment.
(Simple) Assignment operators should not contain the pattern if (this == &a) return *this; ???
virtual, take the parameter by &&, and return by non-const &It is simple and efficient.
See: [The rule for copy-assignment](#Rc-copy-assignment).
Equivalent to what is done for [copy-assignment](#Rc-copy-assignment).
T& to enable chaining, not alternatives like const T& which interfere with composability and putting objects in containers.That is the generally assumed semantics.
After y = std::move(x) the value of y should be the value x had and x should be in a valid state.
template<typename T>
class X { // OK: value semantics
public:
X();
X(X&& a); // move X
void modify(); // change the value of X
// ...
~X() { delete[] p; }
private:
T* p;
int sz;
};
X::X(X&& a)
:p{a.p}, sz{a.sz} // steal representation
{
a.p = nullptr; // set to "empty"
a.sz = 0;
}
void use()
{
X x{};
// ...
X y = std::move(x);
x = X{}; // OK
} // OK: x can be destroyed
Ideally, that moved-from should be the default value of the type. Ensure that unless there is an exceptionally good reason not to. However, not all types have a default value and for some types establishing the default value can be expensive. The standard requires only that the moved-from object can be destroyed. Often, we can easily and cheaply do better: The standard library assumes that it it possible to assign to a moved-from object. Always leave the moved-from object in some (necessarily specified) valid state.
Unless there is an exceptionally strong reason not to, make x = std::move(y); y = z; work with the conventional semantics.
(Not enforceable) Look for assignments to members in the move operation. If there is a default constructor, compare those assignments to the initializations in the default constructor.
If x = x changes the value of x, people will be surprised and bad errors may occur. However, people don't usually directly write a self-assignment that turn into a move, but it can occur. However, std::swap is implemented using move operations so if you accidentally do swap(a, b) where a and b refer to the same object, failing to handle self-move could be a serious and subtle error.
class Foo {
string s;
int i;
public:
Foo& operator=(Foo&& a);
// ...
};
Foo& Foo::operator=(Foo&& a) // OK, but there is a cost
{
if (this == &a) return *this; // this line is redundant
s = std::move(a.s);
i = a.i;
return *this;
}
The one-in-a-million argument against if (this == &a) return *this; tests from the discussion of [self-assignment](#Rc-copy-self) is even more relevant for self-move.
There is no know general way of avoiding a if (this == &a) return *this; test for a move assignment and still get a correct answer (i.e., after x = x the value of x is unchanged).
The ISO standard guarantees only a valid but unspecified
state for the standard library containers. Apparently this has not been a problem in about 10 years of experimental and production use. Please contact the editors if you find a counter example. The rule here is more caution and insists on complete safety.
Here is a way to move a pointer without a test (imagine it as code in the implementation a move assignment):
// move from other.ptr to this->ptr
T* temp = other.ptr;
other.ptr = nullptr;
delete ptr;
ptr = temp;
deleted or set to nullptr.string) and consider them safe for ordinary (not life-critical) uses.noexceptA throwing move violates most people's reasonably assumptions. A non-throwing move will be used more efficiently by standard-library and language facilities.
template<typename T>
class Vector {
// ...
Vector(Vector&& a) noexcept :elem{a.elem}, sz{a.sz} { a.sz = 0; a.elem = nullptr; }
Vector& operator=(Vector&& a) noexcept { elem = a.elem; sz = a.sz; a.sz = 0; a.elem = nullptr; }
// ...
public:
T* elem;
int sz;
};
These copy operations do not throw.
template<typename T>
class Vector2 {
// ...
Vector2(Vector2&& a) { *this = a; } // just use the copy
Vector2& operator=(Vector2&& a) { *this = a; } // just use the copy
// ...
public:
T* elem;
int sz;
};
This Vector2 is not just inefficient, but since a vector copy requires allocation, it can throw.
(Simple) A move operation should be marked noexcept.
clone instead if copyingis desired
To prevent slicing, because the normal copy operations will copy only the base portion of a derived object.
class B { // BAD: base class doesn't suppress copying
int data;
// ... nothing about copy operations, so uses default ...
};
class D : public B {
string more_data; // add a data member
// ...
};
auto d = make_unique<D>();
// oops, slices the object; gets only d.data but drops d.more_data
auto b = make_unique<B>(d);
class B { // GOOD: base class suppresses copying
B(const B&) = delete;
B& operator=(const B&) = delete;
virtual unique_ptr<B> clone() { return /* B object */; }
// ...
};
class D : public B {
string more_data; // add a data member
unique_ptr<B> clone() override { return /* D object */; }
// ...
};
auto d = make_unique<D>();
auto b = d.clone(); // ok, deep clone
It's good to return a smart pointer, but unlike with raw pointers the return type cannot be covariant (for example, D::clone can't return a unique_ptr<D>. Don't let this tempt you into returning an owning raw pointer; this is a minor drawback compared to the major robustness benefit delivered by the owning smart pointer.
If you need covariant return types, return an owner<derived*>. See [C.130](#Rh-copy).
A class with any virtual function should not have a copy constructor or copy assignment operator (compiler-generated or handwritten).
In addition to the operations for which the language offer default implementations,
there are a few operations that are so foundational that it rules for their definition are needed:
comparisons, swap, and hash.
=default if you have to be explicit about using the default semanticsThe compiler is more likely to get the default semantics right and you cannot implement these functions better than the compiler.
class Tracer {
string message;
public:
Tracer(const string& m) : message{m} { cerr << "entering " << message << '\n'; }
~Tracer() { cerr << "exiting " << message << '\n'; }
Tracer(const Tracer&) = default;
Tracer& operator=(const Tracer&) = default;
Tracer(Tracer&&) = default;
Tracer& operator=(Tracer&&) = default;
};
Because we defined the destructor, we must define the copy and move operations. The = default is the best and simplest way of doing that.
class Tracer2 {
string message;
public:
Tracer2(const string& m) : message{m} { cerr << "entering " << message << '\n'; }
~Tracer2() { cerr << "exiting " << message << '\n'; }
Tracer2(const Tracer2& a) : message{a.message} {}
Tracer2& operator=(const Tracer2& a) { message = a.message; return *this; }
Tracer2(Tracer2&& a) :message{a.message} {}
Tracer2& operator=(Tracer2&& a) { message = a.message; return *this; }
};
Writing out the bodies of the copy and move operations is verbose, tedious, and error-prone. A compiler does it better.
(Moderate) The body of a special operation should not have the same accessibility and semantics as the compiler-generated version, because that would be redundant
=delete when you want to disable default behavior (without wanting an alternative)In a few cases, a default operation is not desirable.
class Immortal {
public:
~Immortal() = delete; // do not allow destruction
// ...
};
void use()
{
Immortal ugh; // error: ugh cannot be destroyed
Immortal* p = new Immortal{};
delete p; // error: cannot destroy *p
}
A unique_ptr can be moved, but not copied. To achieve that its copy operations are deleted. To avoid copying it is necessary to =delete its copy operations from lvalues:
template <class T, class D = default_delete<T>> class unique_ptr {
public:
// ...
constexpr unique_ptr() noexcept;
explicit unique_ptr(pointer p) noexcept;
// ...
unique_ptr(unique_ptr&& u) noexcept; // move constructor
// ...
unique_ptr(const unique_ptr&) = delete; // disable copy from lvalue
// ...
};
unique_ptr<int> make(); // make "something" and return it by moving
void f()
{
unique_ptr<int> pi {};
auto pi2 {pi}; // error: no move constructor from lvalue
auto pi3 {make()}; // OK, move: the result of make() is an rvalue
}
The elimination of a default operation is (should be) based on the desired semantics of the class. Consider such classes suspect, but maintain a positive list
of classes where a human has asserted that the semantics is correct.
The function called will be that of the object constructed so far, rather than a possibly overriding function in a derived class. This can be most confusing. Worse, a direct or indirect call to an unimplemented pure virtual function from a constructor or destructor results in undefined behavior.
class Base {
public:
virtual void f() = 0; // not implemented
virtual void g(); // implemented with Base version
virtual void h(); // implemented with Base version
};
class Derived : public Base {
public:
void g() override; // provide Derived implementation
void h() final; // provide Derived implementation
Derived()
{
// BAD: attempt to call an unimplemented virtual function
f();
// BAD: will call Derived::g, not dispatch further virtually
g();
// GOOD: explicitly state intent to call only the visible version
Derived::g();
// ok, no qualification needed, h is final
h();
}
};
Note that calling a specific explicitly qualified function is not a virtual call even if the function is virtual.
See also [factory functions](#Rc-factory) for how to achieve the effect of a call to a derived class function without risking undefined behavior.
There is nothing inherently wrong with calling virtual functions from constructors and destructors. The semantics of such calls is type safe. However, experience shows that such calls are rarely needed, easily confuse maintainers, and become a source of errors when used by novices.
noexcept swap functionA swap can be handy for implementing a number of idioms, from smoothly moving objects around to implementing assignment easily to providing a guaranteed commit function that enables strongly error-safe calling code. Consider using swap to implement copy assignment in terms of copy construction. See also [destructors, deallocation, and swap must never fail](#Re-never-fail).
class Foo {
// ...
public:
void swap(Foo& rhs) noexcept
{
m1.swap(rhs.m1);
std::swap(m2, rhs.m2);
}
private:
Bar m1;
int m2;
};
Providing a nonmember swap function in the same namespace as your type for callers' convenience.
void swap(Foo& a, Foo& b)
{
a.swap(b);
}
swap member function declared.swap member function, it should be declared noexcept.swap function may not failswap is widely used in ways that are assumed never to fail and programs cannot easily be written to work correctly in the presence of a failing swap. The standard-library containers and algorithms will not work correctly if a swap of an element type fails.
void swap(My_vector& x, My_vector& y)
{
auto tmp = x; // copy elements
x = y;
y = tmp;
}
This is not just slow, but if a memory allocation occurs for the elements in tmp, this swap may throw and would make STL algorithms fail if used with them.
(Simple) When a class has a swap member function, it should be declared noexcept.
swap noexcept[A swap may not fail](#Rc-swap-fail).
If a swap tries to exit with an exception, it's a bad design error and the program had better terminate.
(Simple) When a class has a swap member function, it should be declared noexcept.
== symmetric with respect to operand types and noexceptAsymmetric treatment of operands is surprising and a source of errors where conversions are possible.
== is a fundamental operations and programmers should be able to use it without fear of failure.
class X {
string name;
int number;
};
bool operator==(const X& a, const X& b) noexcept {
return a.name == b.name && a.number == b.number;
}
class B {
string name;
int number;
bool operator==(const B& a) const {
return name == a.name && number == a.number;
}
// ...
};
B's comparison accepts conversions for its second operand, but not its first.
If a class has a failure state, like double's NaN, there is a temptation to make a comparison against the failure state throw.
The alternative is to make two failure states compare equal and any valid state compare false against the failure state.
This rule applies to all the usual comparison operators: !=, <, <=, >, and >=.
operator==() for which the argument types differ; same for other comparison operators: !=, <, <=, >, and >=.operator==()s; same for other comparison operators: !=, <, <=, >, and >=.== on base classesIt is really hard to write a foolproof and useful == for a hierarchy.
class B {
string name;
int number;
virtual bool operator==(const B& a) const
{
return name == a.name && number == a.number;
}
// ...
};
B's comparison accepts conversions for its second operand, but not its first.
class D :B {
char character;
virtual bool operator==(const D& a) const
{
return name == a.name && number == a.number && character == a.character;
}
// ...
};
B b = ...
D d = ...
b == d; // compares name and number, ignores d's character
d == b; // error: no == defined
D d2;
d == d2; // compares name, number, and character
B& b2 = d2;
b2 == d; // compares name and number, ignores d2's and d's character
Of course there are ways of making == work in a hierarchy, but the naive approaches do not scale
This rule applies to all the usual comparison operators: !=, <, <=, >, and >=.
operator==(); same for other comparison operators: !=, <, <=, >, and >=.hash noexceptUsers of hashed containers use hash indirectly and don't expect simple access to throw. It's a standard-library requirement.
template<>
struct hash<My_type> { // thoroughly bad hash specialization
using result_type = size_t;
using argument_type = My_type;
size_t operator() (const My_type & x) const
{
size_t xs = x.s.size();
if (xs < 4) throw Bad_My_type{}; // "Nobody expects the Spanish inquisition!"
return hash<size_t>()(x.s.size()) ^ trim(x.s);
}
};
int main()
{
unordered_map<My_type, int> m;
My_type mt{ "asdfg" };
m[mt] = 7;
cout << m[My_type{ "asdfg" }] << '\n';
}
If you have to define a hash specialization, try simply to let it combine standard-library hash specializations with ^ (xor).
That tends to work better than cleverness
for non-specialists.
hashes.A container is an object holding a sequence of objects of some type; std::vector is the archetypical container.
A resource handle is a class that owns a resource; std::vector is the typical resource handle; its resource is its sequence of elements.
Summary of container rules:
Extent constructor](#Rcon-val)* and ->](#rcon-ptr)See also: [Resources](#S-resource)
A function object is an object supplying an overloaded () so that you can call it.
A lambda expression (colloquially often shortened to a lambda
) is a notation for generating a function object.
Function objects should be cheap to copy (and therefore [passed by value](#Rf-in)).
Summary:
const variables](#Res-lambda-init)A class hierarchy is constructed to represent a set of hierarchically organized concepts (only). Typically base classes act as interfaces. There are two major uses for hierarchies, often named implementation inheritance and interface inheritance.
Class hierarchy rule summary:
Designing rules for classes in a hierarchy summary:
virtual, override, or final](#Rh-override)clone function instead](#Rh-copy)virtual without reason](#Rh-virtual)protected data](#Rh-protected)const data members have the same access level](#Rh-public)virtual bases to avoid overly general base classes](#Rh-vbase)using](#Rh-using)final sparingly](#Rh-final)Accessing objects in a hierarchy rule summary:
dynamic_cast where class hierarchy navigation is unavoidable](#Rh-dynamic_cast)dynamic_cast to a reference type when failure to find the required class is considered an error](#Rh-ptr-cast)dynamic_cast to a pointer type when failure to find the required class is considered a valid alternative](#Rh-ref-cast)unique_ptr or shared_ptr to avoid forgetting to delete objects created using new](#Rh-smart)make_unique() to construct objects owned by unique_ptrs](#Rh-make_unique)make_shared() to construct objects owned by shared_ptrs](#Rh-make_shared)Direct representation of ideas in code eases comprehension and maintenance. Make sure the idea represented in the base class exactly matches all derived types and there is not a better way to express it than using the tight coupling of inheritance.
Do not use inheritance when simply having a data member will do. Usually this means that the derived type needs to override a base virtual function or needs access to a protected member.
??? Good old Shape example?
Do not represent non-hierarchical domain concepts as class hierarchies.
template<typename T>
class Container {
public:
// list operations:
virtual T& get() = 0;
virtual void put(T&) = 0;
virtual void insert(Position) = 0;
// ...
// vector operations:
virtual T& operator[](int) = 0;
virtual void sort() = 0;
// ...
// tree operations:
virtual void balance() = 0;
// ...
};
Here most overriding classes cannot implement most of the functions required in the interface well.
Thus the base class becomes an implementation burden.
Furthermore, the user of Container cannot rely on the member functions actually performing a meaningful operations reasonably efficiently;
it may throw an exception instead.
Thus users have to resort to run-time checking and/or
not using this (over)general interface in favor of a particular interface found by a run-time type inquiry (e.g., a dynamic_cast).
B where the derived class D does not override a virtual function or access a protected member in B, and B is not one of the following: empty, a template parameter or parameter pack of D, a class template specialized with D.A class is more stable (less brittle) if it does not contain data. Interfaces should normally be composed entirely of public pure virtual functions and a default/empty virtual destructor.
class My_interface {
public:
// ...only pure virtual functions here ...
virtual ~My_interface() {} // or =default
};
class Goof {
public:
// ...only pure virtual functions here ...
// no virtual destructor
};
class Derived : public Goof {
string s;
// ...
};
void use()
{
unique_ptr<Goof> p {new Derived{"here we go"}};
f(p.get()); // use Derived through the Goof interface
g(p.get()); // use Derived through the Goof interface
} // leak
The Derived is deleted through its Goof interface, so its string is leaked.
Give Goof a virtual destructor and all is well.
final) virtual function.Such as on an ABI (link) boundary.
struct Device {
virtual void write(span<const char> outbuf) = 0;
virtual void read(span<char> inbuf) = 0;
};
class D1 : public Device {
// ... data ...
void write(span<const char> outbuf) override;
void read(span<char> inbuf) override;
};
class D2 : public Device {
// ... different data ...
void write(span<const char> outbuf) override;
void read(span<char> inbuf) override;
};
A user can now use D1s and D2s interchangeably through the interface provided by Device.
Furthermore, we can update D1 and D2 in a ways that are not binary compatible with older versions as long as all access goes through Device.
???
An abstract class typically does not have any data for a constructor to initialize.
???
Flag abstract classes with constructors.
A class with a virtual function is usually (and in general) used via a pointer to base. Usually, the last user has to call delete on a pointer to base, often via a smart pointer to base, so the destructor should be public and virtual. Less commonly, if deletion through a pointer to base is not intended to be supported, the destructor should be protected and nonvirtual; see [C.35](#Rc-dtor-virtual).
struct B {
virtual int f() = 0;
// ... no user-written destructor, defaults to public nonvirtual ...
};
// bad: class with a resource derived from a class without a virtual destructor
struct D : B {
string s {"default"};
};
void use()
{
auto p = make_unique<D>();
// ...
} // calls B::~B only, leaks the string
There are people who don't follow this rule because they plan to use a class only through a shared_ptr: std::shared_ptr<B> p = std::make_shared<D>(args); Here, the shared pointer will take care of deletion, so no leak will occur from an inappropriate delete of the base. People who do this consistently can get a false positive, but the rule is important -- what if one was allocated using make_unique? It's not safe unless the author of B ensures that it can never be misused, such as by making all constructors private and providing a factory function to enforce the allocation with make_shared.
delete of a class with a virtual function but no virtual destructor.virtual, override, or finalReadability.
Detection of mistakes.
Writing explicit virtual, override, or final is self-documenting and enables the compiler to catch mismatch of types and/or names between base and derived classes. However, writing more than one of these three is both redundant and a potential source of errors.
Use virtual only when declaring a new virtual function. Use override only when declaring an overrider. Use final only when declaring a final overrider. If a base class destructor is declared virtual, derived class destructors should neither be declared virtual nor override.
struct B {
void f1(int);
virtual void f2(int) const;
virtual void f3(int);
// ...
};
struct D : B {
void f1(int); // bad (hope for a warning): D::f1() hides B::f1()
void f2(int) const; // bad (but conventional and valid): no explicit override
void f3(double); // bad (hope for a warning): D::f3() hides B::f3()
// ...
};
struct Better : B {
void f1(int) override; // error (caught): D::f1() hides B::f1()
void f2(int) const override;
void f3(double) override; // error (caught): D::f3() hides B::f3()
// ...
};
override nor final.virtual, override, and final.Implementation details in an interface makes the interface brittle; that is, makes its users vulnerable to having to recompile after changes in the implementation. Data in a base class increases the complexity of implementing the base and can lead to replication of code.
Definition:
programming by difference).
A pure interface class is simply a set of pure virtual functions; see [I.25](#Ri-abstract).
In early OOP (e.g., in the 1980s and 1990s), implementation inheritance and interface inheritance were often mixed and bad habits die hard. Even now, mixtures are not uncommon in old code bases and in old-style teaching material.
The importance of keeping the two kinds of inheritance increases
class Shape { // BAD, mixed interface and implementation
public:
Shape();
Shape(Point ce = {0, 0}, Color co = none): cent{ce}, col {co} { /* ... */}
Point center() const { return cent; }
Color color() const { return col; }
virtual void rotate(int) = 0;
virtual void move(Point p) { cent = p; redraw(); }
virtual void redraw();
// ...
public:
Point cent;
Color col;
};
class Circle : public Shape {
public:
Circle(Point c, int r) :Shape{c}, rad{r} { /* ... */ }
// ...
private:
int rad;
};
class Triangle : public Shape {
public:
Triangle(Point p1, Point p2, Point p3); // calculate center
// ...
};
Problems:
Shape, the constructors gets harder to write and maintain.Triangle? we may never us it.Shape (e.g., drawing style or canvas)
and all derived classes and all users needs to be reviewed, possibly changes, and probably recompiled.The implementation of Shape::move() is an example of implementation inheritance:
we have defined move() once and for all for all derived classes.
The more code there is in such base class member function implementations and the more data is shared by placing it in the base,
the more benefits we gain - and the less stable the hierarchy is.
This Shape hierarchy can be rewritten using interface inheritance:
class Shape { // pure interface
public:
virtual Point center() const = 0;
virtual Color color() const = 0;
virtual void rotate(int) = 0;
virtual void move(Point p) = 0;
virtual void redraw() = 0;
// ...
};
Note that a pure interface rarely have constructors: there is nothing to construct.
class Circle : public Shape {
public:
Circle(Point c, int r, Color c) :cent{c}, rad{r}, col{c} { /* ... */ }
Point center() const override { return cent; }
Color color() const override { return col; }
// ...
private:
Point cent;
int rad;
Color col;
};
The interface is now less brittle, but there is more work in implementing the member functions.
For example, center has to be implemented by every class derived from Shape.
How can we gain the benefit of the stable hierarchies from implementation hierarchies and the benefit of implementation reuse from implementation inheritance. One popular technique is dual hierarchies. There are many ways of implementing the idea of dual hierarchies; here, we use a multiple-inheritance variant.
First we devise a hierarchy of interface classes:
class Shape { // pure interface
public:
virtual Point center() const = 0;
virtual Color color() const = 0;
virtual void rotate(int) = 0;
virtual void move(Point p) = 0;
virtual void redraw() = 0;
// ...
};
class Circle : public Shape { // pure interface
public:
int radius() = 0;
// ...
};
To make this interface useful, we must provide its implementation classes (here, named equivalently, but in the Impl namespace):
class Impl::Shape : public Shape { // implementation
public:
// constructors, destructor
// ...
virtual Point center() const { /* ... */ }
virtual Color color() const { /* ... */ }
virtual void rotate(int) { /* ... */ }
virtual void move(Point p) { /* ... */ }
virtual void redraw() { /* ... */ }
// ...
};
Now Shape is a poor example of a class with an implementation,
but bear with us because this is just a simple example of a technique aimed at more complex hierarchies.
class Impl::Circle : public Circle, public Impl::Shape { // implementation
public:
// constructors, destructor
int radius() { /* ... */ }
// ...
};
And we could extend the hierarchies by adding a Smiley class (:-)):
class Smiley : public Circle { // pure interface
public:
// ...
};
class Impl::Smiley : Public Smiley, public Impl::Circle { // implementation
public:
// constructors, destructor
// ...
}
There are now two hierarchies:
Since each implementation derived from its interface as well as its implementation base class we get a lattice (DAG):
Smiley -> Circle -> Shape
^ ^ ^
| | |
Impl::Smiley -> Impl::Circle -> Impl::Shape
As mentioned, this is just one way to construct a dual hierarchy.
Another (related) technique for separating interface and implementation is [PIMPL](#???).
There is often a choice between offering common functionality as (implemented) base class functions and free-standing functions (in an implementation namespace). Base classes gives a shorter notation and easier access to shared data (in the base) at the cost of the functionality being available only to users of the hierarchy.
clone function insteadCopying a base is usually slicing. If you really need copy semantics, copy deeply: Provide a virtual clone function that will copy the actual most-derived type and return an owning pointer to the new object, and then in derived classes return the derived type (use a covariant return type).
class Base {
public:
virtual owner<Base*> clone() = 0;
virtual ~Base() = 0;
Base(const Base&) = delete;
Base& operator=(const Base&) = delete;
};
class Derived : public Base {
public:
owner<Derived*> clone() override;
virtual ~Derived() override;
};
Note that because of language rules, the covariant return type cannot be a smart pointer. See also [C.67](#Rc-copy-virtual).
A trivial getter or setter adds no semantic value; the data item could just as well be public.
class Point {
int x;
int y;
public:
Point(int xx, int yy) : x{xx}, y{yy} { }
int get_x() { return x; }
void set_x(int xx) { x = xx; }
int get_y() { return y; }
void set_y(int yy) { y = yy; }
// no behavioral member functions
};
Consider making such a class a struct -- that is, a behaviorless bunch of variables, all public data and no member functions.
struct Point {
int x = 0;
int y = 0;
};
A getter or a setter that converts from an internal type to an interface type is not trivial (it provides a form of information hiding).
Flag multiple get and set member functions that simply access a member without additional semantics.
virtual without reasonRedundant virtual increases run-time and object-code size.
A virtual function can be overridden and is thus open to mistakes in a derived class.
A virtual function ensures code replication in a templated hierarchy.
template<class T>
class Vector {
public:
// ...
virtual int size() const { return sz; } // bad: what good could a derived class do?
private:
T* elem; // the elements
int sz; // number of elements
};
This kind of vector
isn't meant to be used as a base class at all.
protected dataprotected data is a source of complexity and errors.
protected data complicated the statement of invariants.
protected data inherently violates the guidance against putting data in base classes, which usually leads to having to deal virtual inheritance as well.
???
Protected member function can be just fine.
Flag classes with protected data.
const data members have the same access levelPrevention of logical confusion leading to errors.
If the non-const data members don't have the same access level, the type is confused about what it's trying to do.
Is it a type that maintains an invariant or simply a collection of values?
The core question is: What code is responsible for maintaining a meaningful/correct value for that variable?
There are exactly two kinds of data members:
Data members in category A should just be public (or, more rarely, protected if you only want derived classes to see them). They don't need encapsulation. All code in the system might as well see and manipulate them.
Data members in category B should be private or const. This is because encapsulation is important. To make them non-private and non-const would mean that the object can't control its own state: An unbounded amount of code beyond the class would need to know about the invariant and participate in maintaining it accurately -- if these data members were public, that would be all calling code that uses the object; if they were protected, it would be all the code in current and future derived classes. This leads to brittle and tightly coupled code that quickly becomes a nightmare to maintain. Any code that inadvertently sets the data members to an invalid or unexpected combination of values would corrupt the object and all subsequent uses of the object.
Most classes are either all A or all B:
public.
[By convention, declare such classes struct rather than class](#Rc-struct)const variables should be private -- it should be encapsulated.Occasionally classes will mix A and B, usually for debug reasons. An encapsulated object may contain something like non-const debug instrumentation that isn't part of the invariant and so falls into category A -- it isn't really part of the object's value or meaningful observable state either. In that case, the A parts should be treated as A's (made public, or in rarer cases protected if they should be visible only to derived classes) and the B parts should still be treated like B's (private or const).
Flag any class that has non-const data members with different access levels.
Not all classes will necessarily support all interfaces, and not all callers will necessarily want to deal with all operations. Especially to break apart monolithic interfaces into aspects
of behavior supported by a given derived class.
???
This is a very common use of inheritance because the need for multiple different interfaces to an implementation is common and such interfaces are often not easily or naturally organized into a single-rooted hierarchy.
Such interfaces are typically abstract classes.
???
??? Herb: Here's the second mention of implementation inheritance. I'm very skeptical, even of single implementation inheritance, never mind multiple implementation inheritance which just seems frightening -- I don't think that even policy-based design really needs to inherit from the policy types. Am I missing some good examples, or could we consider discouraging this as an anti-pattern?
???
This a relatively rare use because implementation can often be organized into a single-rooted hierarchy.
??? Herb: How about opposite enforcement: Flag any type that inherits from more than one non-empty base class?
virtual bases to avoid overly general base classes???
???
???
???
using???
???
final sparinglyCapping a hierarchy with final is rarely needed for logical reasons and can be damaging to the extensibility of a hierarchy.
Capping an individual virtual function with final is error-prone as that final can easily be overlooked when defining/overriding a set of functions.
class Widget { /* ... */ };
// nobody will ever want to improve My_widget (or so you thought)
class My_widget final : public Widget { /* ... */ };
class My_improved_widget : public My_widget { /* ... */ }; // error: can't do that
struct Interface {
virtual int f() = 0;
virtual int g() = 0;
};
class My_implementation : public Interface {
int f() override;
int g() final; // I want g() to be FAST!
// ...
};
class Better_implementation : public My_implementation {
int f();
int g();
// ...
};
void use(Interface* p)
{
int x = p->f(); // Better_implementation::f()
int y = p->g(); // My_implementation::g() Surprise?
}
// ...
use(new Better_implementation{});
The problem is easy to see in a small example, but in a large hierarchy with many virtual functions, tools are required for reliably spotting such problems.
Consistent use of override would catch this.
Claims of performance improvements from final should be substantiated.
Too often, such claims are based on conjecture or experience with other languages.
There are examples where final can be important for both logical and performance reasons.
One example is a performance-critical AST hierarchy in a compiler or language analysis tool.
New derived classes are not added every year and only by library implementers.
However, misuses are (or at least have been) far more common.
Flag uses of final.
That can cause confusion: An overrider does not inherit default arguments.
class Base {
public:
virtual int multiply(int value, int factor = 2) = 0;
};
class Derived : public Base {
public:
int multiply(int value, int factor = 10) override;
};
Derived d;
Base& b = d;
b.multiply(10); // these two calls will call the same function but
d.multiply(10); // with different arguments and so different results
Flag default arguments on virtual functions if they differ between base and derived declarations.
If you have a class with a virtual function, you don't (in general) know which class provided the function to be used.
struct B { int a; virtual int f(); };
struct D : B { int b; int f() override; };
void use(B b)
{
D d;
B b2 = d; // slice
B b3 = b;
}
void use2()
{
D d;
use(d); // slice
}
Both ds are sliced.
You can safely access a named polymorphic object in the scope of its definition, just don't slice it.
void use3()
{
D d;
d.f(); // OK
}
Flag all slicing.
dynamic_cast where class hierarchy navigation is unavoidabledynamic_cast is checked at run time.
struct B { // an interface
virtual void f();
virtual void g();
};
struct D : B { // a wider interface
void f() override;
virtual void h();
};
void user(B* pb)
{
if (D* pd = dynamic_cast<D*>(pb)) {
// ... use D's interface ...
}
else {
// ... make do with B's interface ...
}
}
Like other casts, dynamic_cast is overused.
[Prefer virtual functions to casting](#???).
Prefer [static polymorphism](#???) to hierarchy navigation where it is possible (no run-time resolution necessary)
and reasonably convenient.
Some people use dynamic_cast where a typeid would have been more appropriate;
dynamic_cast is a general is kind of
operation for discovering the best interface to an object,
whereas typeid is a give me the exact type of this object
operation to discover the actual type of an object.
The latter is an inherently simpler operation that ought to be faster.
The latter (typeid) is easily hand-crafted if necessary (e.g., if working on a system where RTTI is -- for some reason -- prohibited),
the former (dynamic_cast) is far harder to implement correctly in general.
Consider:
struct B {
const char * name {"B"};
virtual const char* id() const { return name; }
// ...
};
struct D : B {
const char * name {"D"};
const char* id() const override { return name; }
// ...
};
void use()
{
B* pb1 = new B;
B* pb2 = new D;
cout << pb1->id(); // "B"
cout << pb2->id(); // "D"
if (pb1->id() == pb2->id()) // *pb1 is the same type as *pb2
if (pb2->id() == "D") { // looks innocent
D* pd = static_cast<D*>(pb1);
// ...
}
// ...
}
The result of pb2->id() == "D" is actually implementation defined.
We added it to warn of the dangers of home-brew RTTI.
This code may work as expected for years, just to fail on a new machine, new compiler, or a new linker that does not unify character literals.
If you implement your own RTTI, be careful.
If your implementation provided a really slow dynamic_cast, you may have to use a workaround.
However, all workarounds that cannot be statically resolved involve explicit casting (typically static_cast) and are error-prone.
You will basically be crafting your own special-purpose dynamic_cast.
So, first make sure that your dynamic_cast really is as slow as you think it is (there are a fair number of unsupported rumors about)
and that your use of dynamic_cast is really performance critical.
We are of the opinion that current implementations of dynamic_cast are unnecessarily slow.
For example, under suitable conditions, it is possible to perform a dynamic_cast in fast constant time.
However, compatibility makes changes difficult even if all agree that an effort to optimize is worthwhile.
In very rare cases, if you have measured that the dynamic_cast overhead is material, you have other means to statically guarantee that a downcast will succeed (e.g., you are using CRTP carefully), and there is no virtual inheritance involved, consider tactically resorting static_cast with a prominent comment and disclaimer summarizing this paragraph and that human attention is needed under maintenance because the type system can't verify correctness. Even so, in our experience such I know what I'm doing
situations are still a known bug source.
Flag all uses of static_cast for downcasts, including C-style casts that perform a static_cast.
dynamic_cast to a reference type when failure to find the required class is considered an errorCasting to a reference expresses that you intend to end up with a valid object, so the cast must succeed. dynamic_cast will then throw if it does not succeed.
???
???
dynamic_cast to a pointer type when failure to find the required class is considered a valid alternative???
???
???
unique_ptr or shared_ptr to avoid forgetting to delete objects created using newAvoid resource leaks.
void use(int i)
{
auto p = new int {7}; // bad: initialize local pointers with new
auto q = make_unique<int>(9); // ok: guarantee the release of the memory allocated for 9
if (0 < i) return; // maybe return and leak
delete p; // too late
}
newdelete of local variablemake_unique() to construct objects owned by unique_ptrsmake_unique gives a more concise statement of the construction.
It also ensures exception safety in complex expressions.
unique_ptr<Foo> p {new<Foo>{7}}; // OK: but repetitive
auto q = make_unique<Foo>(7); // Better: no repetition of Foo
// Not exception-safe: the compiler may interleave the computations of arguments as follows:
//
// 1. allocate memory for Foo,
// 2. construct Foo,
// 3. call bar,
// 4. construct unique_ptr<Foo>.
//
// If bar throws, Foo will not be destroyed, and the memory allocated for it will leak.
f(unique_ptr<Foo>(new Foo()), bar());
// Exception-safe: calls to functions are never interleaved.
f(make_unique<Foo>(), bar());
<Foo>unique_ptr<Foo>make_shared() to construct objects owned by shared_ptrsmake_shared gives a more concise statement of the construction.
It also gives an opportunity to eliminate a separate allocation for the reference counts, by placing the shared_ptr's use counts next to its object.
// OK: but repetitive; and separate allocations for the Foo and shared_ptr's use count
shared_ptr<Foo> p {new<Foo>{7}};
auto q = make_shared<Foo>(7); // Better: no repetition of Foo; one object
<Foo>shared_ptr<Foo>Subscripting the resulting base pointer will lead to invalid object access and probably to memory corruption.
struct B { int x; };
struct D : B { int y; };
void use(B*);
D a[] = {{1, 2}, {3, 4}, {5, 6}};
B* p = a; // bad: a decays to &a[0] which is converted to a B*
p[1].x = 7; // overwrite D[0].y
use(a); // bad: a decays to &a[0] which is converted to a B*
span rather than as a pointer, and don't let the array name suffer a derived-to-base conversion before getting into the spanYou can overload ordinary functions, template functions, and operators. You cannot overload function objects.
Overload rule summary:
using for customization points](#Ro-custom)& only as part of a system of smart pointers and references](#Ro-address-of)Minimize surprises.
class X {
public:
// ...
X& operator=(const X&); // member function defining assignment
friend bool operator==(const X&, const X&); // == needs access to representation
// after a = b we have a == b
// ...
};
Here, the conventional semantics is maintained: [Copies compare equal](#SS-copy).
X operator+(X a, X b) { return a.v - b.v; } // bad: makes + subtract
Non-member operators should be either friends or defined in [the same namespace as their operands](#Ro-namespace). [Binary operators should treat their operands equivalently](#Ro-symmetric).
Possibly impossible.
If you use member functions, you need two.
Unless you use a non-member function for (say) ==, a == b and b == a will be subtly different.
bool operator==(Point a, Point b) { return a.x == b.x && a.y == b.y; }
Flag member operator functions.
Having different names for logically equivalent operations on different argument types is confusing, leads to encoding type information in function names, and inhibits generic programming.
Consider:
void print(int a);
void print(int a, int base);
void print(const string&);
These three functions all print their arguments (appropriately). Conversely:
void print_int(int a);
void print_based(int a, int base);
void print_string(const string&);
These three functions all print their arguments (appropriately). Adding to the name just introduced verbosity and inhibits generic code.
???
Having the same name for logically different functions is confusing and leads to errors when using generic programming.
Consider:
void open_gate(Gate& g); // remove obstacle from garage exit lane
void fopen(const char* name, const char* mode); // open file
The two operations are fundamentally different (and unrelated) so it is good that their names differ. Conversely:
void open(Gate& g); // remove obstacle from garage exit lane
void open(const char* name, const char* mode ="r"); // open file
The two operations are still fundamentally different (and unrelated) but the names have been reduced to their (common) minimum, opening opportunities for confusion. Fortunately, the type system will catch many such mistakes.
Be particularly careful about common and popular names, such as open, move, +, and ==.
???
Implicit conversions can be essential (e.g., double to int) but often cause surprises (e.g., String to C-style string).
Prefer explicitly named conversions until a serious need is demonstrated.
By serious need
we mean a reason that is fundamental in the application domain (such as an integer to complex number conversion)
and frequently needed. Do not introduce implicit conversions (through conversion operators or non-explicit constructors)
just to gain a minor convenience.
class String { // handle ownership and access to a sequence of characters
// ...
String(czstring p); // copy from *p to *(this->elem)
// ...
operator zstring() { return elem; }
// ...
};
void user(zstring p)
{
if (*p == "") {
String s {"Trouble ahead!"};
// ...
p = s;
}
// use p
}
The string allocated for s and assigned to p is destroyed before it can be used.
Flag all conversion operators.
using for customization pointsTo find function objects and functions defined in a separate namespace to customize
a common function.
Consider swap. It is a general (standard library) function with a definition that will work for just about any type.
However, it is desirable to define specific swap()s for specific types.
For example, the general swap() will copy the elements of two vectors being swapped, whereas a good specific implementation will not copy elements at all.
namespace N {
My_type X { /* ... */ };
void swap(X&, X&); // optimized swap for N::X
// ...
}
void f1(N::X& a, N::X& b)
{
std::swap(a, b); // probably not what we wanted: calls std::swap()
}
The std::swap() in f1() does exactly what we asked it to do: it calls the swap() in namespace std.
Unfortunately, that's probably not what we wanted.
How do we get N::X considered?
void f2(N::X& a, N::X& b)
{
swap(a, b); // calls N::swap
}
But that may not be what we wanted for generic code. There, we typically want the specific function if it exists and the general function if not. This is done by including the general function in the lookup for the function:
void f3(N::X& a, N::X& b)
{
using std::swap; // make std::swap available
swap(a, b); // calls N::swap if it exists, otherwise std::swap
}
Unlikely, except for known customization points, such as swap.
The problem is that the unqualified and qualified lookups both have uses.
& only as part of a system of smart pointers and referencesThe & operator is fundamental in C++.
Many parts of the C++ semantics assumes its default meaning.
class Ptr { // a somewhat smart pointer
Ptr(X* pp) :p(pp) { /* check */ }
X* operator->() { /* check */ return p; }
X operator[](int i);
X operator*();
private:
T* p;
};
class X {
Ptr operator&() { return Ptr{this}; }
// ...
};
If you mess with
operator & be sure that its definition has matching meanings for ->, [], *, and . on the result type.
Note that operator . currently cannot be overloaded so a perfect system is impossible.
We hope to remedy that: http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/docs/papers/2015/n4477.pdf.
Note that std::addressof() always yields a built-in pointer.
Tricky. Warn if & is user-defined without also defining -> for the result type.
Readability. Ability for find operators using ADL. Avoiding inconsistent definition in different namespaces
struct S { };
bool operator==(S, S); // OK: in the same namespace as S, and even next to S
S s;
bool x = (s == s);
This is what a default == would do, if we had such defaults.
namespace N {
struct S { };
bool operator==(S, S); // OK: in the same namespace as S, and even next to S
}
N::S s;
bool x = (s == s); // finds N::operator==() by ADL
struct S { };
S s;
namespace N {
S::operator!(S a) { return true; }
S not_s = !s;
}
namespace M {
S::operator!(S a) { return false; }
S not_s = !s;
}
Here, the meaning of !s differs in N and M.
This can be most confusing.
Remove the definition of namespace M and the confusion is replaced by an opportunity to make the mistake.
If a binary operator is defined for two types that are defined in different namespaces, you cannot follow this rule. For example:
Vec::Vector operator*(const Vec::Vector&, const Mat::Matrix&);
This may be something best avoided.
This is a special case of the rule that [helper functions should be defined in the same namespace as their class](#Rc-helper).
Readability. Convention. Reusability. Support for generic code
void cout_my_class(const My_class& c) // confusing, not conventional,not generic
{
std::cout << /* class members here */;
}
std::ostream& operator<<(std::ostream& os, const my_class& c) // OK
{
return os << /* class members here */;
}
By itself, cout_my_class would be OK, but it is not usable/composable with code that rely on the << convention for output:
My_class var { /* ... */ };
// ...
cout << "var = " << var << '\n';
There are strong and vigorous conventions for the meaning most operators, such as
==, !=, <, <=, >, and >=),+, -, *, /, and %)., ->, unary *, and [])=)Don't define those unconventionally and don't invent your own names for them.
Tricky. Requires semantic insight.
You cannot overload by defining two different lambdas with the same name.
void f(int);
void f(double);
auto f = [](char); // error: cannot overload variable and function
auto g = [](int) { /* ... */ };
auto g = [](double) { /* ... */ }; // error: cannot overload variables
auto h = [](auto) { /* ... */ }; // OK
The compiler catches the attempt to overload a lambda.
A union is a struct where all members start at the same address so that it can hold only one member at a time.
A union does not keep track of which member is stored so the programmer has to get it right;
this is inherently error-prone, but there are ways to compensate.
A type that is a union plus an indicator of which member is currently held is called a tagged union, a discriminated union, or a variant.
Union rule summary:
unions to save Memory](#Ru-union)naked
unions](#Ru-naked)unions to implement tagged unions](#Ru-anonymous)union for type punning](#Ru-pun)unions to save memoryA union allows a single piece of memory to be used for different types of objects at different times.
Consequently, it can be used to save memory when we have several objects that are never used at the same time.
union Value {
int x;
double d;
};
Value v = { 123 }; // now v holds an int
cout << v.x << '\n'; // write 123
v.d = 987.654; // now v holds a double
cout << v.d << '\n'; // write 987.654
But heed the warning: [Avoid naked
unions](#Ru-naked)
// Short string optimization
constexpr size_t buffer_size = 16; // Slightly larger than the size of a pointer
class Immutable_string {
public:
Immutable_string(const char* str) :
size(strlen(str))
{
if (size < buffer_size)
strcpy_s(string_buffer, buffer_size, str);
else {
string_ptr = new char[size + 1];
strcpy_s(string_ptr, size + 1, str);
}
}
~Immutable_string()
{
if (size >= buffer_size)
delete string_ptr;
}
const char* get_str() const
{
return (size < buffer_size) ? string_buffer : string_ptr;
}
private:
// If the string is short enough, we store the string itself
// instead of a pointer to the string.
union {
char* string_ptr;
char string_buffer[buffer_size];
};
const size_t size;
};
???
naked
unionsA naked union is a union without an associated indicator which member (if any) it holds, so that the programmer has to keep track. Naked unions are a source of type errors.
union Value {
int x;
double d;
};
Value v;
v.d = 987.654; // v holds a double
So far, so good, but we can easily misuse the union:
cout << v.x << '\n'; // BAD, undefined behavior: v holds a double, but we read it as an int
Note that the type error happened without any explicit cast.
When we tested that program the last value printed was 1683627180 which it the integer value for the bit pattern for 987.654.
What we have here is an invisible
type error that happens to give a result that could easily look innocent.
And, talking about invisible
, this code produced no output:
v.x = 123;
cout << v.d << '\n'; // BAD: undefined behavior
Wrap a union in a class together with a type field.
The soon-to-be-standard variant type (to be found in <variant>) does that for you:
variant<int, double> v;
v = 123; // v holds an int
int x = get<int>(v);
v = 123.456; // v holds a double
w = get<double>(v);
???
unions to implement tagged unionsA well-designed tagged union is type safe. An anonymous union simplifies the definition of a class with a (tag, union) pair.
This example is mostly borrowed from TC++PL4 pp216-218. You can look there for an explanation.
The code is somewhat elaborate.
Handling a type with user-defined assignment and destructor is tricky.
Saving programmers from having to write such code is one reason for including variant in the standard.
class Value { // two alternative representations represented as a union
private:
enum class Tag { number, text };
Tag type; // discriminant
union { // representation (note: anonymous union)
int i;
string s; // string has default constructor, copy operations, and destructor
};
public:
struct Bad_entry { }; // used for exceptions
~Value();
Value& operator=(const Value&); // necessary because of the string variant
Value(const Value&);
// ...
int number() const;
string text() const;
void set_number(int n);
void set_text(const string&);
// ...
};
int Value::number() const
{
if (type != Tag::number) throw Bad_entry{};
return i;
}
string Value::text() const
{
if (type != Tag::text) throw Bad_entry{};
return s;
}
void Value::set_number(int n)
{
if (type == Tag::text) {
s.~string(); // explicitly destroy string
type = Tag::number;
}
i = n;
}
void Value::set_text(const string& ss)
{
if (type == Tag::text)
s = ss;
else {
new(&s) string{ss}; // placement new: explicitly construct string
type = Tag::text;
}
}
Value& Value::operator=(const Value& e) // necessary because of the string variant
{
if (type == Tag::text && e.type == Tag::text) {
s = e.s; // usual string assignment
return *this;
}
if (type == Tag::text) s.~string(); // explicit destroy
switch (e.type) {
case Tag::number:
i = e.i;
break;
case Tag::text:
new(&s)(e.s); // placement new: explicit construct
type = e.type;
}
return *this;
}
Value::~Value()
{
if (type == Tag::text) s.~string(); // explicit destroy
}
???
union for type punningIt is undefined behavior to read a union member with a different type from the one with which it was written.
Such punning is invisible, or at least harder to spot than using a named cast.
Type punning using a union is a source of errors.
union Pun {
int x;
unsigned char c[sizeof(int)];
};
The idea of Pun is to be able to look at the character representation of an int.
void bad(Pun& u)
{
u.x = 'x';
cout << u.c[0] << '\n'; // undefined behavior
}
If you wanted to see the bytes of an int, use a (named) cast:
void if_you_must_pun(int& x)
{
auto p = reinterpret_cast<unsigned char*>(&x);
cout << p[0] << '\n'; // undefined behavior
// ...
}
Accessing the result of an reinterpret_cast to a different type from the objects declared type is still undefined behavior,
but at least we can see that something tricky is going on.
Unfortunately, unions are commonly used for type punning.
We don't consider sometimes, it works as expected
a strong argument.
???
Enumerations are used to define sets of integer values and for defining types for such sets of values.
There are two kind of enumerations, plain
enums and class enums.
Enumeration rule summary:
enum classes over plain
enums](#Renum-class)ALL_CAPS for enumerators](#Renum-caps)Macros do not obey scope and type rules. Also, macro names are removed during preprocessing and so usually don't appear in tools like debuggers.
First some bad old code:
// webcolors.h (third party header)
#define RED 0xFF0000
#define GREEN 0x00FF00
#define BLUE 0x0000FF
// productinfo.h
// The following define product subtypes based on color
#define RED 0
#define PURPLE 1
#define BLUE 2
int webby = BLUE; // webby == 2; probably not what was desired
Instead use an enum:
enum class Web_color { red = 0xFF0000, green = 0x00FF00, blue = 0x0000FF };
enum class Product_info { red = 0, purple = 1, blue = 2 };
int webby = blue; // error: be specific
Web_color webby = Web_color::blue;
We used an enum class to avoid name clashes.
Flag macros that define integer values.
An enumeration shows the enumerators to be related and can be a named type.
enum class Web_color { red = 0xFF0000, green = 0x00FF00, blue = 0x0000FF };
Switching on an enumeration is common and the compiler can warn against unusual patterns of case labels. For example:
enum class Product_info { red = 0, purple = 1, blue = 2 };
void print(Product_info inf)
{
switch (inf) {
case Product_info::red: cout << "red"; break;
case Product_info::purple: cout << "purple"; break;
}
}
Such off-by-one switch`statements are often the results of an added enumerator and insufficient testing.
switch-statements where the cases cover most but not all enumerators of an enumeration.switch-statements where the cases cover a few enumerators of an enumeration, but has no default.plainenums
To minimize surprises: traditional enums convert to int too readily.
void Print_color(int color);
enum Web_color { red = 0xFF0000, green = 0x00FF00, blue = 0x0000FF };
enum Product_info { Red = 0, Purple = 1, Blue = 2 };
Web_color webby = Web_color::blue;
// Clearly at least one of these calls is buggy.
Print_color(webby);
Print_color(Product_info::Blue);
Instead use an enum class:
void Print_color(int color);
enum class Web_color { red = 0xFF0000, green = 0x00FF00, blue = 0x0000FF };
enum class Product_info { red = 0, purple = 1, blue = 2 };
Web_color webby = Web_color::blue;
Print_color(webby); // Error: cannot convert Web_color to int.
Print_color(Product_info::Red); // Error: cannot convert Product_info to int.
(Simple) Warn on any non-class enum definition.
Convenience of use and avoidance of errors.
enum class Day { mon, tue, wed, thu, fri, sat, sun };
Day operator++(Day& d)
{
return d == Day::sun ? Day::mon : Day{++d};
}
Day today = Day::sat;
Day tomorrow = ++today;
Flag repeated expressions cast back into an enumeration.
ALL_CAPS for enumeratorsAvoid clashes with macros.
// webcolors.h (third party header)
#define RED 0xFF0000
#define GREEN 0x00FF00
#define BLUE 0x0000FF
// productinfo.h
// The following define product subtypes based on color
enum class Product_info { RED, PURPLE, BLUE }; // syntax error
Flag ALL_CAPS enumerators.
If you can't name an enumeration, the values are not related
enum { red = 0xFF0000, scale = 4, is_signed = 1 };
Such code is not uncommon in code written before there were convenient alternative ways of specifying integer constants.
Use constexpr values instead. For example:
constexpr int red = 0xFF0000;
constexpr short scale = 4;
constexpr bool is_signed = true;
Flag unnamed enumerations.
The default is the easiest to read and write.
int is the default integer type.
int is compatible with C enums.
enum class Direction : char { n, s, e, w,
ne, nw, se, sw }; // underlying type saves space
enum class Web_color : int { red = 0xFF0000,
green = 0x00FF00,
blue = 0x0000FF }; // underlying type is redundant
Specifying the underlying type is necessary in forward declarations of enumerations:
enum Flags : char;
void f(Flags);
// ....
enum flags : char { /* ... */ };
????
It's the simplest.
It avoids duplicate enumerator values.
The default gives a consecutive set of values that is good for switch-statement implementations.
enum class Col1 { red, yellow, blue };
enum class Col2 { red = 1, yellow = 2, blue = 2 }; // typo
enum class Month { jan = 1, feb, mar, apr, may, jun,
jul, august, sep, oct, nov, dec }; // starting with 1 is conventional
enum class Base_flag { dec = 1, oct = dec << 1, hex = dec << 2 }; // set of bits
Specifying values is necessary to match conventional values (e.g., Month)
and where consecutive values are undesirable (e.g., to get separate bits as in Base_flag).
This section contains rules related to resources. A resource is anything that must be acquired and (explicitly or implicitly) released, such as memory, file handles, sockets, and locks. The reason it must be released is typically that it can be in short supply, so even delayed release may do harm. The fundamental aim is to ensure that we don't leak any resources and that we don't hold a resource longer than we need to. An entity that is responsible for releasing a resource is called an owner.
There are a few cases where leaks can be acceptable or even optimal: If you are writing a program that simply produces an output based on an input and the amount of memory needed is proportional to the size of the input, the optimal strategy (for performance and ease of programming) is sometimes simply never to delete anything. If you have enough memory to handle your largest input, leak away, but be sure to give a good error message if you are wrong. Here, we ignore such cases.
Resource management rule summary:
T*) is non-owning](#Rr-ptr)T&) is non-owning](#Rr-ref)const global variables](#Rr-global)Allocation and deallocation rule summary:
malloc() and free()](#Rr-mallocfree)new and delete explicitly](#Rr-newdelete)unique_ptr or shared_ptr to represent ownership](#Rr-owner)unique_ptr over shared_ptr unless you need to share ownership](#Rr-unique)make_shared() to make shared_ptrs](#Rr-make_shared)make_unique() to make unique_ptrs](#Rr-make_unique)std::weak_ptr to break cycles of shared_ptrs](#Rr-weak_ptr)std smart pointers, follow the basic pattern from std](#Rr-smart)unique_ptr<widget> parameter to express that a function assumes ownership of a widget](#Rr-uniqueptrparam)unique_ptr<widget>& parameter to express that a function reseats the widget](#Rr-reseat)shared_ptr<widget> parameter to express that a function is part owner](#Rr-sharedptrparam-owner)shared_ptr<widget>& parameter to express that a function might reseat the shared pointer](#Rr-sharedptrparam)const shared_ptr<widget>& parameter to express that it might retain a reference count to the object ???](#Rr-sharedptrparam-const)To avoid leaks and the complexity of manual resource management.
C++'s language-enforced constructor/destructor symmetry mirrors the symmetry inherent in resource acquire/release function pairs such as fopen/fclose, lock/unlock, and new/delete.
Whenever you deal with a resource that needs paired acquire/release function calls, encapsulate that resource in an object that enforces pairing for you -- acquire the resource in its constructor, and release it in its destructor.
Consider:
void send(X* x, cstring_span destination)
{
auto port = open_port(destination);
my_mutex.lock();
// ...
send(port, x);
// ...
my_mutex.unlock();
close_port(port);
delete x;
}
In this code, you have to remember to unlock, close_port, and delete on all paths, and do each exactly once.
Further, if any of the code marked ... throws an exception, then x is leaked and my_mutex remains locked.
Consider:
void send(unique_ptr<X> x, cstring_span destination) // x owns the X
{
Port port{destination}; // port owns the PortHandle
lock_guard<mutex> guard{my_mutex}; // guard owns the lock
// ...
send(port, x);
// ...
} // automatically unlocks my_mutex and deletes the pointer in x
Now all resource cleanup is automatic, performed once on all paths whether or not there is an exception. As a bonus, the function now advertises that it takes over ownership of the pointer.
What is Port? A handy wrapper that encapsulates the resource:
class Port {
PortHandle port;
public:
Port(cstring_span destination) : port{open_port(destination)} { }
~Port() { close_port(port); }
operator PortHandle() { return port; }
// port handles can't usually be cloned, so disable copying and assignment if necessary
Port(const Port&) = delete;
Port& operator=(const Port&) = delete;
};
Where a resource is ill-behaved
in that it isn't represented as a class with a destructor, wrap it in a class or use [finally](#S-gsl)
See also: [RAII](#Rr-raii).
Arrays are best represented by a container type (e.g., vector (owning)) or a span (non-owning).
Such containers and views hold sufficient information to do range checking.
void f(int* p, int n) // n is the number of elements in p[]
{
// ...
p[2] = 7; // bad: subscript raw pointer
// ...
}
The compiler does not read comments, and without reading other code you do not know whether p really points to n elements.
Use a span instead.
void g(int* p, int fmt) // print *p using format #fmt
{
// ... uses *p and p[0] only ...
}
C-style strings are passed as single pointers to a zero-terminated sequence of characters.
Use zstring rather than char* to indicate that you rely on that convention.
Many current uses of pointers to a single element could be references.
However, where nullptr is a possible value, a reference may not be an reasonable alternative.
++) on a pointer that is not part of a container, view, or iterator.
This rule would generate a huge number of false positives if applied to an older code base.T*) is non-owningThere is nothing (in the C++ standard or in most code) to say otherwise and most raw pointers are non-owning. We want owning pointers identified so that we can reliably and efficiently delete the objects pointed to by owning pointers.
void f()
{
int* p1 = new int{7}; // bad: raw owning pointer
auto p2 = make_unique<int>(7); // OK: the int is owned by a unique pointer
// ...
}
The unique_ptr protects against leaks by guaranteeing the deletion of its object (even in the presence of exceptions). The T* does not.
template<typename T>
class X {
// ...
public:
T* p; // bad: it is unclear whether p is owning or not
T* q; // bad: it is unclear whether q is owning or not
};
We can fix that problem by making ownership explicit:
template<typename T>
class X2 {
// ...
public:
owner<T*> p; // OK: p is owning
T* q; // OK: q is not owning
};
A major class of exception is legacy code, especially code that must remain compilable as C or interface with C and C-style C++ through ABIs.
The fact that there are billions of lines of code that violate this rule against owning T*s cannot be ignored.
We'd love to see program transformation tools turning 20-year-old legacy
code into shiny modern code,
we encourage the development, deployment and use of such tools,
we hope the guidelines will help the development of such tools,
and we even contributed (and contribute) to the research and development in this area.
However, it will take time: legacy code
is generated faster than we can renovate old code, and so it will be for a few years.
This code cannot all be rewritten (ever assuming good code transformation software), especially not soon.
This problem cannot be solved (at scale) by transforming all owning pointers to unique_ptrs and shared_ptrs,
partly because we need/use owning raw pointers
as well as simple pointers in the implementation of our fundamental resource handles.
For example, common vector implementations have one owning pointer and two non-owning pointers.
Many ABIs (and essentially all interfaces to C code) use T*s, some of them owning.
Some interfaces cannot be simply annotated with owner because they need to remain compilable as C
(although this would be a rare good use for a macro, that expands to owner in C++ mode only).
owner<T*> has no default semantics beyond T*. It can be used without changing any code using it and without affecting ABIs.
It is simply a indicator to programmers and analysis tools.
For example, if an owner<T*> is a member of a class, that class better have a destructor that deletes it.
Returning a (raw) pointer imposes a life-time management uncertainty on the caller; that is, who deletes the pointed-to object?
Gadget* make_gadget(int n)
{
auto p = new Gadget{n};
// ...
return p;
}
void caller(int n)
{
auto p = make_gadget(n); // remember to delete p
// ...
delete p;
}
In addition to suffering from the problem from [leak](#???), this adds a spurious allocation and deallocation operation, and is needlessly verbose. If Gadget is cheap to move out of a function (i.e., is small or has an efficient move operation), just return it by value
(see [out
return values](#Rf-out)):
Gadget make_gadget(int n)
{
Gadget g{n};
// ...
return g;
}
This rule applies to factory functions.
If pointer semantics are required (e.g., because the return type needs to refer to a base class of a class hierarchy (an interface)), return a smart pointer.
delete of a raw pointer that is not an owner<T>.reset or explicitly delete an owner<T> pointer on every code path.new or a function call with return value of pointer type is assigned to a raw pointer.T&) is non-owningThere is nothing (in the C++ standard or in most code) to say otherwise and most raw references are non-owning. We want owners identified so that we can reliably and efficiently delete the objects pointed to by owning pointers.
void f()
{
int& r = *new int{7}; // bad: raw owning reference
// ...
delete &r; // bad: violated the rule against deleting raw pointers
}
See also: [The raw pointer rule](#Rr-ptr)
See [the raw pointer rule](#Rr-ptr)
A scoped object is a local object, a global object, or a member. This implies that there is no separate allocation and deallocation cost in excess of that already used for the containing scope or object. The members of a scoped object are themselves scoped and the scoped object's constructor and destructor manage the members' lifetimes.
The following example is inefficient (because it has unnecessary allocation and deallocation), vulnerable to exception throws and returns in the ... part (leading to leaks), and verbose:
void f(int n)
{
auto p = new Gadget{n};
// ...
delete p;
}
Instead, use a local variable:
void f(int n)
{
Gadget g{n};
// ...
}
auto stack object instead.Unique_ptr or Shared_ptr is not moved, copied, reassigned or reset before its lifetime ends.const global variablesGlobal variables can be accessed from everywhere so they can introduce surprising dependencies between apparently unrelated objects. They are a notable source of errors.
Warning: The initialization of global objects is not totally ordered.
If you use a global object initialize it with a constant.
Note that it is possible to get undefined initialization order even for const objects.
A global object is often better than a singleton.
An immutable (const) global does not introduce the problems we try to avoid by banning global objects.
(??? NM: Obviously we can warn about non-const statics ... do we want to?)
malloc() and free()malloc() and free() do not support construction and destruction, and do not mix well with new and delete.
class Record {
int id;
string name;
// ...
};
void use()
{
// p1 may be nullptr
// *p1 is not initialized; in particular,
// that string isn't a string, but a string-sized bag of bits
Record* p1 = static_cast<Record*>(malloc(sizeof(Record)));
auto p2 = new Record;
// unless an exception is thrown, *p2 is default initialized
auto p3 = new(nothrow) Record;
// p3 may be nullptr; if not, *p3 is default initialized
// ...
delete p1; // error: cannot delete object allocated by malloc()
free(p2); // error: cannot free() object allocated by new
}
In some implementations that delete and that free() might work, or maybe they will cause run-time errors.
There are applications and sections of code where exceptions are not acceptable.
Some of the best such examples are in life-critical hard real-time code.
Beware that many bans on exception use are based on superstition (bad)
or by concerns for older code bases with unsystematic resource management (unfortunately, but sometimes necessary).
In such cases, consider the nothrow versions of new.
Flag explicit use of malloc and free.
new and delete explicitlyThe pointer returned by new should belong to a resource handle (that can call delete).
If the pointer returned by new is assigned to a plain/naked pointer, the object can be leaked.
In a large program, a naked delete (that is a delete in application code, rather than part of code devoted to resource management)
is a likely bug: if you have N deletes, how can you be certain that you don't need N+1 or N-1?
The bug may be latent: it may emerge only during maintenance.
If you have a naked new, you probably need a naked delete somewhere, so you probably have a bug.
(Simple) Warn on any explicit use of new and delete. Suggest using make_unique instead.
If you don't, an exception or a return may lead to a leak.
void f(const string& name)
{
FILE* f = fopen(name, "r"); // open the file
vector<char> buf(1024);
auto _ = finally([f] { fclose(f); }) // remember to close the file
// ...
}
The allocation of buf may fail and leak the file handle.
void f(const string& name)
{
ifstream f{name}; // open the file
vector<char> buf(1024);
// ...
}
The use of the file handle (in ifstream) is simple, efficient, and safe.
If you perform two explicit resource allocations in one statement, you could leak resources because the order of evaluation of many subexpressions, including function arguments, is unspecified.
void fun(shared_ptr<Widget> sp1, shared_ptr<Widget> sp2);
This fun can be called like this:
// BAD: potential leak
fun(shared_ptr<Widget>(new Widget(a, b)), shared_ptr<Widget>(new Widget(c, d)));
This is exception-unsafe because the compiler may reorder the two expressions building the function's two arguments.
In particular, the compiler can interleave execution of the two expressions:
Memory allocation (by calling operator new) could be done first for both objects, followed by attempts to call the two Widget constructors.
If one of the constructor calls throws an exception, then the other object's memory will never be released!
This subtle problem has a simple solution: Never perform more than one explicit resource allocation in a single expression statement. For example:
shared_ptr<Widget> sp1(new Widget(a, b)); // Better, but messy
fun(sp1, new Widget(c, d));
The best solution is to avoid explicit allocation entirely use factory functions that return owning objects:
fun(make_shared<Widget>(a, b), make_shared<Widget>(c, d)); // Best
Write your own factory wrapper if there is not one already.
An array decays to a pointer, thereby losing its size, opening the opportunity for range errors.
??? what do we recommend: f(int*[]) or f(int**) ???
Alternative: Use span to preserve size information.
Flag [] parameters.
Otherwise you get mismatched operations and chaos.
class X {
// ...
void* operator new(size_t s);
void operator delete(void*);
// ...
};
If you want memory that cannot be deallocated, =delete the deallocation operation.
Don't leave it undeclared.
Flag incomplete pairs.
unique_ptr or shared_ptr to represent ownershipThey can prevent resource leaks.
Consider:
void f()
{
X x;
X* p1 { new X }; // see also ???
unique_ptr<T> p2 { new X }; // unique ownership; see also ???
shared_ptr<T> p3 { new X }; // shared ownership; see also ???
}
This will leak the object used to initialize p1 (only).
(Simple) Warn if the return value of new or a function call with return value of pointer type is assigned to a raw pointer.
unique_ptr over shared_ptr unless you need to share ownershipA unique_ptr is conceptually simpler and more predictable (you know when destruction happens) and faster (you don't implicitly maintain a use count).
This needlessly adds and maintains a reference count.
void f()
{
shared_ptr<Base> base = make_shared<Derived>();
// use base locally, without copying it -- refcount never exceeds 1
} // destroy base
This is more efficient:
void f()
{
unique_ptr<Base> base = make_unique<Derived>();
// use base locally
} // destroy base
(Simple) Warn if a function uses a Shared_ptr with an object allocated within the function, but never returns the Shared_ptr or passes it to a function requiring a Shared_ptr&. Suggest using unique_ptr instead.
make_shared() to make shared_ptrsIf you first make an object and then give it to a shared_ptr constructor, you (most likely) do one more allocation (and later deallocation) than if you use make_shared() because the reference counts must be allocated separately from the object.
Consider:
shared_ptr<X> p1 { new X{2} }; // bad
auto p = make_shared<X>(2); // good
The make_shared() version mentions X only once, so it is usually shorter (as well as faster) than the version with the explicit new.
(Simple) Warn if a shared_ptr is constructed from the result of new rather than make_shared.
make_unique() to make unique_ptrsFor convenience and consistency with shared_ptr.
make_unique() is C++14, but widely available (as well as simple to write).
(Simple) Warn if a unique_ptr is constructed from the result of new rather than make_unique.
std::weak_ptr to break cycles of shared_ptrsshared_ptr's rely on use counting and the use count for a cyclic structure never goes to zero, so we need a mechanism to
be able to destroy a cyclic structure.
???
??? (HS: A lot of people say to break cycles
, while I think temporary shared ownership
is more to the point.)
???(BS: breaking cycles is what you must do; temporarily sharing ownership is how you do it.
You could temporarily share ownership
simply by using another shared_ptr.)
??? probably impossible. If we could statically detect cycles, we wouldn't need weak_ptr
Accepting a smart pointer to a widget is wrong if the function just needs the widget itself.
It should be able to accept any widget object, not just ones whose lifetimes are managed by a particular kind of smart pointer.
A function that does not manipulate lifetime should take raw pointers or references instead.
// callee
void f(shared_ptr<widget>& w)
{
// ...
use(*w); // only use of w -- the lifetime is not used at all
// ...
};
// caller
shared_ptr<widget> my_widget = /* ... */;
f(my_widget);
widget stack_widget;
f(stack_widget); // error
// callee
void f(widget& w)
{
// ...
use(w);
// ...
};
// caller
shared_ptr<widget> my_widget = /* ... */;
f(*my_widget);
widget stack_widget;
f(stack_widget); // ok -- now this works
operator-> or operator*) that is copyable but the function only calls any of: operator*, operator-> or get().
Suggest using a T* or T& instead.operator-> or operator*) that is copyable/movable but never copied/moved from in the function body, and that is never modified, and that is not passed along to another function that could do so. That means the ownership semantics are not used.
Suggest using a T* or T& instead.std smart pointers, follow the basic pattern from stdThe rules in the following section also work for other kinds of third-party and custom smart pointers and are very useful for diagnosing common smart pointer errors that cause performance and correctness problems. You want the rules to work on all the smart pointers you use.
Any type (including primary template or specialization) that overloads unary * and -> is considered a smart pointer:
shared_ptr.unique_ptr.// use Boost's intrusive_ptr
#include<boost/intrusive_ptr.hpp>
void f(boost::intrusive_ptr<widget> p) // error under rule 'sharedptrparam'
{
p->foo();
}
// use Microsoft's CComPtr
#include<atlbase.h>
void f(CComPtr<widget> p) // error under rule 'sharedptrparam'
{
p->foo();
}
Both cases are an error under the [sharedptrparam guideline](#Rr-smartptrparam):
p is a Shared_ptr, but nothing about its sharedness is used here and passing it by value is a silent pessimization;
these functions should accept a smart pointer only if they need to participate in the widget's lifetime management. Otherwise they should accept a widget*, if it can be nullptr. Otherwise, and ideally, the function should accept a widget&.
These smart pointers match the Shared_ptr concept, so these guideline enforcement rules work on them out of the box and expose this common pessimization.
unique_ptr<widget> parameter to express that a function assumes ownership of a widgetUsing unique_ptr in this way both documents and enforces the function call's ownership transfer.
void sink(unique_ptr<widget>); // consumes the widget
void sink(widget*); // just uses the widget
void thinko(const unique_ptr<widget>&); // usually not what you want
Unique_ptr<T> parameter by lvalue reference and does not either assign to it or call reset() on it on at least one code path. Suggest taking a T* or T& instead.Unique_ptr<T> parameter by reference to const. Suggest taking a const T* or const T& instead.Unique_ptr<T> parameter by rvalue reference. Suggest using pass by value instead.unique_ptr<widget>& parameter to express that a function reseats thewidgetUsing unique_ptr in this way both documents and enforces the function call's reseating semantics.
reseat
means making a reference or a smart pointer refer to a different object.
void reseat(unique_ptr<widget>&); // "will" or "might" reseat pointer
void thinko(const unique_ptr<widget>&); // usually not what you want
Unique_ptr<T> parameter by lvalue reference and does not either assign to it or call reset() on it on at least one code path. Suggest taking a T* or T& instead.Unique_ptr<T> parameter by reference to const. Suggest taking a const T* or const T& instead.Unique_ptr<T> parameter by rvalue reference. Suggest using pass by value instead.shared_ptr<widget> parameter to express that a function is part ownerThis makes the function's ownership sharing explicit.
void share(shared_ptr<widget>); // share -- "will" retain refcount
void reseat(shared_ptr<widget>&); // "might" reseat ptr
void may_share(const shared_ptr<widget>&); // "might" retain refcount
Shared_ptr<T> parameter by lvalue reference and does not either assign to it or call reset() on it on at least one code path. Suggest taking a T* or T& instead.Shared_ptr<T> by value or by reference to const and does not copy or move it to another Shared_ptr on at least one code path. Suggest taking a T* or T& instead.Shared_ptr<T> by rvalue reference. Suggesting taking it by value instead.shared_ptr<widget>& parameter to express that a function might reseat the shared pointerThis makes the function's reseating explicit.
reseat
means making a reference or a smart pointer refer to a different object.
void share(shared_ptr<widget>); // share -- "will" retain refcount
void reseat(shared_ptr<widget>&); // "might" reseat ptr
void may_share(const shared_ptr<widget>&); // "might" retain refcount
Shared_ptr<T> parameter by lvalue reference and does not either assign to it or call reset() on it on at least one code path. Suggest taking a T* or T& instead.Shared_ptr<T> by value or by reference to const and does not copy or move it to another Shared_ptr on at least one code path. Suggest taking a T* or T& instead.Shared_ptr<T> by rvalue reference. Suggesting taking it by value instead.const shared_ptr<widget>& parameter to express that it might retain a reference count to the object ???This makes the function's ??? explicit.
void share(shared_ptr<widget>); // share -- "will" retain refcount
void reseat(shared_ptr<widget>&); // "might" reseat ptr
void may_share(const shared_ptr<widget>&); // "might" retain refcount
Shared_ptr<T> parameter by lvalue reference and does not either assign to it or call reset() on it on at least one code path. Suggest taking a T* or T& instead.Shared_ptr<T> by value or by reference to const and does not copy or move it to another Shared_ptr on at least one code path. Suggest taking a T* or T& instead.Shared_ptr<T> by rvalue reference. Suggesting taking it by value instead.Violating this rule is the number one cause of losing reference counts and finding yourself with a dangling pointer. Functions should prefer to pass raw pointers and references down call chains. At the top of the call tree where you obtain the raw pointer or reference from a smart pointer that keeps the object alive. You need to be sure that the smart pointer cannot inadvertently be reset or reassigned from within the call tree below.
To do this, sometimes you need to take a local copy of a smart pointer, which firmly keeps the object alive for the duration of the function and the call tree.
Consider this code:
// global (static or heap), or aliased local ...
shared_ptr<widget> g_p = ...;
void f(widget& w)
{
g();
use(w); // A
}
void g()
{
g_p = ...; // oops, if this was the last shared_ptr to that widget, destroys the widget
}
The following should not pass code review:
void my_code()
{
// BAD: passing pointer or reference obtained from a nonlocal smart pointer
// that could be inadvertently reset somewhere inside f or it callees
f(*g_p);
// BAD: same reason, just passing it as a "this" pointer
g_p->func();
}
The fix is simple -- take a local copy of the pointer to keep a ref count
for your call tree:
void my_code()
{
// cheap: 1 increment covers this entire function and all the call trees below us
auto pin = g_p;
// GOOD: passing pointer or reference obtained from a local unaliased smart pointer
f(*pin);
// GOOD: same reason
pin->func();
}
Unique_ptr or Shared_ptr) that is nonlocal, or that is local but potentially aliased, is used in a function call. If the smart pointer is a Shared_ptr then suggest taking a local copy of the smart pointer and obtain a pointer or reference from that instead.Expressions and statements are the lowest and most direct way of expressing actions and computation. Declarations in local scopes are statements.
For naming, commenting, and indentation rules, see [NL: Naming and layout](#S-naming).
General rules:
handcrafted code](#Res-lib)
Declaration rules:
ALL_CAPS names](#Res-not-CAPS)auto to avoid redundant repetition of type names](#Res-auto){}-initializer syntax](#Res-list)unique_ptr<T> to hold pointers in code that may throw](#Res-unique)const or constexpr unless you want to modify its value later on](#Res-const)std::array or stack_array for arrays on the stack](#Res-stack)const variables](#Res-lambda-init)functions](#Res-macros2)
ALL_CAPS for all macro names](#Res-ALL_CAPS)Expression rules:
magic constants; use symbolic constants](#Res-magic)
nullptr rather than 0 or NULL](#Res-nullptr)const](#Res-casts-const)std::move() in application code](#Res-move)new and delete outside resource management functions](#Res-new)delete[] and non-arrays using delete](#Res-del)Statement rules:
switch-statement to an if-statement when there is a choice](#Res-switch-if)for-statement to a for-statement when there is a choice](#Res-for-range)for-statement to a while-statement when there is an obvious loop variable](#Res-for-while)while-statement to a for-statement when there is no obvious loop variable](#Res-while-for)for-statement](#Res-for-init)do-statements](#Res-do)goto](#Res-goto)continue](#Res-continue)case with a break](#Res-break)default](#Res-default)Arithmetic rules:
handcrafted code
Code using a library can be much easier to write than code working directly with language features, much shorter, tend to be of a higher level of abstraction, and the library code is presumably already tested. The ISO C++ standard library is among the most widely known and best tested libraries. It is available as part of all C++ Implementations.
auto sum = accumulate(begin(a), end(a), 0.0); // good
a range version of accumulate would be even better:
auto sum = accumulate(v, 0.0); // better
but don't hand-code a well-known algorithm:
int max = v.size(); // bad: verbose, purpose unstated
double sum = 0.0;
for (int i = 0; i < max; ++i)
sum = sum + v[i];
Large parts of the standard library rely on dynamic allocation (free store). These parts, notably the containers but not the algorithms, are unsuitable for some hard-real time and embedded applications. In such cases, consider providing/using similar facilities, e.g., a standard-library-style container implemented using a pool allocator.
Not easy. ??? Look for messy loops, nested loops, long functions, absence of function calls, lack of use of non-built-in types. Cyclomatic complexity?
A suitable abstraction
(e.g., library or class) is closer to the application concepts than the bare language, leads to shorter and clearer code, and is likely to be better tested.
vector<string> read1(istream& is) // good
{
vector<string> res;
for (string s; is >> s;)
res.push_back(s);
return res;
}
The more traditional and lower-level near-equivalent is longer, messier, harder to get right, and most likely slower:
char** read2(istream& is, int maxelem, int maxstring, int* nread) // bad: verbose and incomplete
{
auto res = new char*[maxelem];
int elemcount = 0;
while (is && elemcount < maxelem) {
auto s = new char[maxstring];
is.read(s, maxstring);
res[elemcount++] = s;
}
nread = &elemcount;
return res;
}
Once the checking for overflow and error handling has been added that code gets quite messy, and there is the problem remembering to delete the returned pointer and the C-style strings that array contains.
Not easy. ??? Look for messy loops, nested loops, long functions, absence of function calls, lack of use of non-built-in types. Cyclomatic complexity?
A declaration is a statement. A declaration introduces a name into a scope and may cause the construction of a named object.
Readability. Minimize resource retention. Avoid accidental misuse of value.
Alternative formulation: Don't declare a name in an unnecessarily large scope.
void use()
{
int i; // bad: i is needlessly accessible after loop
for (i = 0; i < 20; ++i) { /* ... */ }
// no intended use of i here
for (int i = 0; i < 20; ++i) { /* ... */ } // good: i is local to for-loop
if (auto pc = dynamic_cast<Circle*>(ps)) { // good: pc is local to if-statement
// ... deal with Circle ...
}
else {
// ... handle error ...
}
}
void use(const string& name)
{
string fn = name + ".txt";
ifstream is {fn};
Record r;
is >> r;
// ... 200 lines of code without intended use of fn or is ...
}
This function is by most measure too long anyway, but the point is that the resources used by fn and the file handle held by is
are retained for much longer than needed and that unanticipated use of is and fn could happen later in the function.
In this case, it might be a good idea to factor out the read:
Record load_record(const string& name)
{
string fn = name + ".txt";
ifstream is {fn};
Record r;
is >> r;
return r;
}
void use(const string& name)
{
Record r = load_record(name);
// ... 200 lines of code ...
}
Readability. Minimize resource retention.
void use()
{
for (string s; cin >> s;)
v.push_back(s);
for (int i = 0; i < 20; ++i) { // good: i is local to for-loop
// ...
}
if (auto pc = dynamic_cast<Circle*>(ps)) { // good: pc is local to if-statement
// ... deal with Circle ...
}
else {
// ... handle error ...
}
}
Readability. Lowering the chance of clashes between unrelated non-local names.
Conventional short, local names increase readability:
template<typename T> // good
void print(ostream& os, const vector<T>& v)
{
for (int i = 0; i < v.size(); ++i)
os << v[i] << '\n';
}
An index is conventionally called i and there is no hint about the meaning of the vector in this generic function, so v is as good name as any. Compare
template<typename Element_type> // bad: verbose, hard to read
void print(ostream& target_stream, const vector<Element_type>& current_vector)
{
for (int current_element_index = 0;
current_element_index < current_vector.size();
++current_element_index
)
target_stream << current_vector[current_element_index] << '\n';
}
Yes, it is a caricature, but we have seen worse.
Unconventional and short non-local names obscure code:
void use1(const string& s)
{
// ...
tt(s); // bad: what is tt()?
// ...
}
Better, give non-local entities readable names:
void use1(const string& s)
{
// ...
trim_tail(s); // better
// ...
}
Here, there is a chance that the reader knows what trim_tail means and that the reader can remember it after looking it up.
Argument names of large functions are de facto non-local and should be meaningful:
void complicated_algorithm(vector<Record>& vr, const vector<int>& vi, map<string, int>& out)
// read from events in vr (marking used Records) for the indices in
// vi placing (name, index) pairs into out
{
// ... 500 lines of code using vr, vi, and out ...
}
We recommend keeping functions short, but that rule isn't universally adhered to and naming should reflect that.
Check length of local and non-local names. Also take function length into account.
Code clarity and readability. Too-similar names slow down comprehension and increase the likelihood of error.
if (readable(i1 + l1 + ol + o1 + o0 + ol + o1 + I0 + l0)) surprise();
Do not declare a non-type with the same name as a type in the same scope. This removes the need to disambiguate with a keyword such as struct or enum. It also removes a source of errors, as struct X can implicitly declare X if lookup fails.
struct foo { int n; };
struct foo foo(); // BAD, foo is a type already in scope
struct foo x = foo(); // requires disambiguation
Antique header files might declare non-types and types with the same name in the same scope.
ALL_CAPS namesSuch names are commonly used for macros. Thus, ALL_CAPS name are vulnerable to unintended macro substitution.
// somewhere in some header:
#define NE !=
// somewhere else in some other header:
enum Coord { N, NE, NW, S, SE, SW, E, W };
// somewhere third in some poor programmer's .cpp:
switch (direction) {
case N:
// ...
case NE:
// ...
// ...
}
Do not use ALL_CAPS for constants just because constants used to be macros.
Flag all uses of ALL CAPS. For older code, accept ALL CAPS for macro names and flag all non-ALL-CAPS macro names.
One-declaration-per line increases readability and avoids mistakes related to the C/C++ grammar. It also leaves room for a more descriptive end-of-line comment.
char *p, c, a[7], *pp[7], **aa[10]; // yuck!
A function declaration can contain several function argument declarations.
template <class InputIterator, class Predicate>
bool any_of(InputIterator first, InputIterator last, Predicate pred);
or better using concepts:
bool any_of(InputIterator first, InputIterator last, Predicate pred);
double scalbn(double x, int n); // OK: x * pow(FLT_RADIX, n); FLT_RADIX is usually 2
or:
double scalbn( // better: x * pow(FLT_RADIX, n); FLT_RADIX is usually 2
double x, // base value
int n // exponent
);
or:
// better: base * pow(FLT_RADIX, exponent); FLT_RADIX is usually 2
double scalbn(double base, int exponent);
Flag non-function arguments with multiple declarators involving declarator operators (e.g., int* p, q;)
auto to avoid redundant repetition of type namesauto, the name of the declared entity is in a fixed position in the declaration, increasing readability.Consider:
auto p = v.begin(); // vector<int>::iterator
auto s = v.size();
auto h = t.future();
auto q = make_unique<int[]>(s);
auto f = [](int x){ return x + 10; };
In each case, we save writing a longish, hard-to-remember type that the compiler already knows but a programmer could get wrong.
template<class T>
auto Container<T>::first() -> Iterator; // Container<T>::Iterator
Avoid auto for initializer lists and in cases where you know exactly which type you want and where an initializer might require conversion.
auto lst = { 1, 2, 3 }; // lst is an initializer list
auto x{1}; // x is an int (after correction of the C++14 standard; initializer_list in C++11)
When concepts become available, we can (and should) be more specific about the type we are deducing:
// ...
ForwardIterator p = algo(x, y, z);
Flag redundant repetition of type names in a declaration.
It is easy to get confused about which variable is used. Can cause maintenance problems.
int d = 0;
// ...
if (cond) {
// ...
d = 9;
// ...
}
else {
// ...
int d = 7;
// ...
d = value_to_be_returned;
// ...
}
return d;
If this is a large if-statement, it is easy to overlook that a new d has been introduced in the inner scope.
This is a known source of bugs.
Sometimes such reuse of a name in an inner scope is called shadowing
.
Shadowing is primarily a problem when functions are too large and too complex.
Shadowing of function arguments in the outermost block is disallowed by the language:
void f(int x)
{
int x = 4; // error: reuse of function argument name
if (x) {
int x = 7; // allowed, but bad
// ...
}
}
Reuse of a member name as a local variable can also be a problem:
struct S {
int m;
void f(int x);
};
void S::f(int x)
{
m = 7; // assign to member
if (x) {
int m = 9;
// ...
m = 99; // assign to member
// ...
}
}
We often reuse function names from a base class in a derived class:
struct B {
void f(int);
};
struct D : B {
void f(double);
using B::f;
};
This is error-prone.
For example, had we forgotten the using declaration, a call d.f(1) would not have found the int version of f.
??? Do we need a specific rule about shadowing/hiding in class hierarchies?
Avoid used-before-set errors and their associated undefined behavior. Avoid problems with comprehension of complex initialization. Simplify refactoring.
void use(int arg)
{
int i; // bad: uninitialized variable
// ...
i = 7; // initialize i
}
No, i = 7 does not initialize i; it assigns to it. Also, i can be read in the ... part. Better:
void use(int arg) // OK
{
int i = 7; // OK: initialized
string s; // OK: default initialized
// ...
}
The always initialize rule is deliberately stronger than the an object must be set before used language rule. The latter, more relaxed rule, catches the technical bugs, but:
The always initialize rule is a style rule aimed to improve maintainability as well as a rule protecting against used-before-set errors.
Here is an example that is often considered to demonstrate the need for a more relaxed rule for initialization
widget i; // "widget" a type that's expensive to initialize, possibly a large POD
widget j;
if (cond) { // bad: i and j are initialized "late"
i = f1();
j = f2();
}
else {
i = f3();
j = f4();
}
This cannot trivially be rewritten to initialize i and j with initializers.
Note that for types with a default constructor, attempting to postpone initialization simply leads to a default initialization followed by an assignment.
A popular reason for such examples is efficiency
, but a compiler that can detect whether we made a used-before-set error can also eliminate any redundant double initialization.
At the cost of repeating cond we could write:
widget i = (cond) ? f1() : f3();
widget j = (cond) ? f2() : f4();
Assuming that there is a logical connection between i and j, that connection should probably be expressed in code:
pair<widget, widget> make_related_widgets(bool x)
{
return (x) ? {f1(), f2()} : {f3(), f4() };
}
auto init = make_related_widgets(cond);
widget i = init.first;
widget j = init.second;
Obviously, what we really would like is a construct that initialized n variables from a tuple. For example:
auto {i, j} = make_related_widgets(cond); // Not C++14
Today, we might approximate that using tie():
widget i; // bad: uninitialized variable
widget j;
tie(i, j) = make_related_widgets(cond);
This may be seen as an example of the immediately initialize from input exception below.
Creating optimal and equivalent code from all of these examples should be well within the capabilities of modern C++ compilers (but don't make performance claims without measuring; a compiler may very well not generate optimal code for every example and there may be language rules preventing some optimization that you would have liked in a particular case).
Complex initialization has been popular with clever programmers for decades. It has also been a major source of errors and complexity. Many such errors are introduced during maintenance years after the initial implementation.
It you are declaring an object that is just about to be initialized from input, initializing it would cause a double initialization. However, beware that this may leave uninitialized data beyond the input -- and that has been a fertile source of errors and security breaches:
constexpr int max = 8 * 1024;
int buf[max]; // OK, but suspicious: uninitialized
f.read(buf, max);
The cost of initializing that array could be significant in some situations. However, such examples do tend to leave uninitialized variables accessible, so they should be treated with suspicion.
constexpr int max = 8 * 1024;
int buf[max] = {}; // zero all elements; better in some situations
f.read(buf, max);
When feasible use a library function that is known not to overflow. For example:
string s; // s is default initialized to ""
cin >> s; // s expands to hold the string
Don't consider simple variables that are targets for input operations exceptions to this rule:
int i; // bad
// ...
cin >> i;
In the not uncommon case where the input target and the input operation get separated (as they should not) the possibility of used-before-set opens up.
int i2 = 0; // better
// ...
cin >> i;
A good optimizer should know about input operations and eliminate the redundant operation.
Using an uninitialized or sentinel value is a symptom of a problem and not a
solution:
widget i = uninit; // bad
widget j = uninit;
// ...
use(i); // possibly used before set
// ...
if (cond) { // bad: i and j are initialized "late"
i = f1();
j = f2();
}
else {
i = f3();
j = f4();
}
Now the compiler cannot even simply detect a used-before-set. Further, we've introduced complexity in the state space for widget: which operations are valid on an uninit widget and which are not?
Sometimes, a lambda can be used as an initializer to avoid an uninitialized variable:
error_code ec;
Value v = [&] {
auto p = get_value(); // get_value() returns a pair<error_code, Value>
ec = p.first;
return p.second;
}();
or maybe:
Value v = [] {
auto p = get_value(); // get_value() returns a pair<error_code, Value>
if (p.first) throw Bad_value{p.first};
return p.second;
}();
See also: [ES.28](#Res-lambda-init)
const argument can be assumed to be a write into the variable.Readability. To limit the scope in which the variable can be used.
int x = 7;
// ... no use of x here ...
++x;
Flag declarations that are distant from their first use.
Readability. Limit the scope in which a variable can be used. Don't risk used-before-set. Initialization is often more efficient than assignment.
string s;
// ... no use of s here ...
s = "what a waste";
SomeLargeType var; // ugly CaMeLcAsEvArIaBlE
if (cond) // some non-trivial condition
Set(&var);
else if (cond2 || !cond3) {
var = Set2(3.14);
}
else {
var = 0;
for (auto& e : something)
var += e;
}
// use var; that this isn't done too early can be enforced statically with only control flow
This would be fine if there was a default initialization for SomeLargeType that wasn't too expensive.
Otherwise, a programmer might very well wonder if every possible path through the maze of conditions has been covered.
If not, we have a use before set
bug. This is a maintenance trap.
For initializers of moderate complexity, including for const variables, consider using a lambda to express the initializer; see [ES.28](#Res-lambda-init).
{} initializer syntaxThe rules for {} initialization are simpler, more general, less ambiguous, and safer than for other forms of initialization.
int x {f(99)};
vector<int> v = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
For containers, there is a tradition for using {...} for a list of elements and (...) for sizes:
vector<int> v1(10); // vector of 10 elements with the default value 0
vector<int> v2 {10}; // vector of 1 element with the value 10
{}-initializers do not allow narrowing conversions.
int x {7.9}; // error: narrowing
int y = 7.9; // OK: y becomes 7. Hope for a compiler warning
{} initialization can be used for all initialization; other forms of initialization can't:
auto p = new vector<int> {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; // initialized vector
D::D(int a, int b) :m{a, b} { // member initializer (e.g., m might be a pair)
// ...
};
X var {}; // initialize var to be empty
struct S {
int m {7}; // default initializer for a member
// ...
};
Initialization of a variable declared using auto with a single value, e.g., {v}, had surprising results until recently:
auto x1 {7}; // x1 is an int with the value 7
// x2 is an initializer_list<int> with an element 7
// (this will will change to "element 7" in C++17)
auto x2 = {7};
auto x11 {7, 8}; // error: two initializers
auto x22 = {7, 8}; // x2 is an initializer_list<int> with elements 7 and 8
Use ={...} if you really want an initializer_list<T>
auto fib10 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55}; // fib10 is a list
Old habits die hard, so this rule is hard to apply consistently, especially as there are so many cases where = is innocent.
template<typename T>
void f()
{
T x1(1); // T initialized with 1
T x0(); // bad: function declaration (often a mistake)
T y1 {1}; // T initialized with 1
T y0 {}; // default initialized T
// ...
}
See also: [Discussion](#???)
Tricky.
= for simple initializers.= after auto has been seen.unique_ptr<T> to hold pointersUsing std::unique_ptr is the simplest way to avoid leaks. It is reliable, it
makes the type system do much of the work to validate ownership safety, it
increases readability, and it has zero or near zero runtime cost.
void use(bool leak)
{
auto p1 = make_unique<int>(7); // OK
int* p2 = new int{7}; // bad: might leak
// ...
if (leak) return;
// ...
}
If leak == true the object pointed to by p2 is leaked and the object pointed to by p1 is not.
Look for raw pointers that are targets of new, malloc(), or functions that may return such pointers.
const or constexpr unless you want to modify its value later onThat way you can't change the value by mistake. That way may offer the compiler optimization opportunities.
void f(int n)
{
const int bufmax = 2 * n + 2; // good: we can't change bufmax by accident
int xmax = n; // suspicious: is xmax intended to change?
// ...
}
Look to see if a variable is actually mutated, and flag it if
not. Unfortunately, it may be impossible to detect when a non-const was not
intended to vary (vs when it merely did not vary).
Readability.
void use()
{
int i;
for (i = 0; i < 20; ++i) { /* ... */ }
for (i = 0; i < 200; ++i) { /* ... */ } // bad: i recycled
}
Flag recycled variables.
std::array or stack_array for arrays on the stackThey are readable and don't implicitly convert to pointers. They are not confused with non-standard extensions of built-in arrays.
const int n = 7;
int m = 9;
void f()
{
int a1[n];
int a2[m]; // error: not ISO C++
// ...
}
The definition of a1 is legal C++ and has always been.
There is a lot of such code.
It is error-prone, though, especially when the bound is non-local.
Also, it is a popular
source of errors (buffer overflow, pointers from array decay, etc.).
The definition of a2 is C but not C++ and is considered a security risk
const int n = 7;
int m = 9;
void f()
{
array<int, n> a1;
stack_array<int> a2(m);
// ...
}
const variablesIt nicely encapsulates local initialization, including cleaning up scratch variables needed only for the initialization, without needing to create a needless nonlocal yet nonreusable function. It also works for variables that should be const but only after some initialization work.
widget x; // should be const, but:
for (auto i = 2; i <= N; ++i) { // this could be some
x += some_obj.do_something_with(i); // arbitrarily long code
} // needed to initialize x
// from here, x should be const, but we can't say so in code in this style
const widget x = [&]{
widget val; // assume that widget has a default constructor
for (auto i = 2; i <= N; ++i) { // this could be some
val += some_obj.do_something_with(i); // arbitrarily long code
} // needed to initialize x
return val;
}();
string var = [&]{
if (!in) return ""; // default
string s;
for (char c : in >> c)
s += toupper(c);
return s;
}(); // note ()
If at all possible, reduce the conditions to a simple set of alternatives (e.g., an enum) and don't mix up selection and initialization.
owner<istream&> in = [&]{
switch (source) {
case default: owned = false; return cin;
case command_line: owned = true; return *new istringstream{argv[2]};
case file: owned = true; return *new ifstream{argv[2]};
}();
Hard. At best a heuristic. Look for an uninitialized variable followed by a loop assigning to it.
Macros are a major source of bugs. Macros don't obey the usual scope and type rules. Macros ensure that the human reader sees something different from what the compiler sees. Macros complicate tool building.
#define Case break; case /* BAD */
This innocuous-looking macro makes a single lower case c instead of a C into a bad flow-control bug.
This rule does not ban the use of macros for configuration control
use in #ifdefs, etc.
Scream when you see a macro that isn't just used for source control (e.g., #ifdef)
functions
Macros are a major source of bugs. Macros don't obey the usual scope and type rules. Macros don't obey the usual rules for argument passing. Macros ensure that the human reader sees something different from what the compiler sees. Macros complicate tool building.
#define PI 3.14
#define SQUARE(a, b) (a * b)
Even if we hadn't left a well-known bug in SQUARE there are much better behaved alternatives; for example:
constexpr double pi = 3.14;
template<typename T> T square(T a, T b) { return a * b; }
Scream when you see a macro that isn't just used for source control (e.g., #ifdef)
ALL_CAPS for all macro namesConvention. Readability. Distinguishing macros.
#define forever for (;;) /* very BAD */
#define FOREVER for (;;) /* Still evil, but at least visible to humans */
Scream when you see a lower case macro.
Macros do not obey scope rules.
#define MYCHAR /* BAD, will eventually clash with someone else's MYCHAR*/
#define ZCORP_CHAR /* Still evil, but less likely to clash */
Avoid macros if you can: [ES.30](#Res-macros), [ES.31](#Res-macros2), and [ES.32](#Res-ALL_CAPS). However, there are billions of lines of code littered with macros and a long tradition for using and overusing macros. If you are forced to use macros, use long names and supposedly unique prefixes (e.g., your organization's name) to lower the likelihood of a clash.
Warn against short macro names.
Not type safe. Requires messy cast-and-macro-laden code to get working right.
#include<cstdarg>
// "severity" followed by a zero-terminated list of char*s; write the C-style strings to cerr
void error(int severity ...)
{
va_list ap; // a magic type for holding arguments
va_start(ap, severity); // arg startup: "severity" is the first argument of error()
for (;;) {
// treat the next var as a char*; no checking: a cast in disguise
char* p = va_arg(ap, char*);
if (p == nullptr) break;
cerr << p << ' ';
}
va_end(ap); // arg cleanup (don't forget this)
cerr << '\n';
if (severity) exit(severity);
}
void use()
{
error(7, "this", "is", "an", "error", nullptr);
error(7); // crash
error(7, "this", "is", "an", "error"); // crash
const char* is = "is";
string an = "an";
error(7, "this", "is", an, "error"); // crash
}
Alternative: Overloading. Templates. Variadic templates.
This is basically the way printf is implemented.
#include<cstdarg> and #include<stdarg.h>Statements control the flow of control (except for function calls and exception throws, which are expressions).
switch-statement to an if-statement when there is a choiceswitch compares against constants and is usually better optimized than a series of tests in an if-then-else chain.switch enables some heuristic consistency checking. For example, have all values of an enum been covered? If not, is there a default?void use(int n)
{
switch (n) { // good
case 0: // ...
case 7: // ...
}
}
rather than:
void use2(int n)
{
if (n == 0) // bad: if-then-else chain comparing against a set of constants
// ...
else if (n == 7)
// ...
}
Flag if-then-else chains that check against constants (only).
for-statement to a for-statement when there is a choiceReadability. Error prevention. Efficiency.
for (int i = 0; i < v.size(); ++i) // bad
cout << v[i] << '\n';
for (auto p = v.begin(); p != v.end(); ++p) // bad
cout << *p << '\n';
for (auto& x : v) // OK
cout << x << '\n';
for (int i = 1; i < v.size(); ++i) // touches two elements: can't be a range-for
cout << v[i] + v[i - 1] << '\n';
for (int i = 0; i < v.size(); ++i) // possible side-effect: can't be a range-for
cout << f(v, &v[i]) << '\n';
for (int i = 0; i < v.size(); ++i) { // body messes with loop variable: can't be a range-for
if (i % 2 == 0)
continue; // skip even elements
else
cout << v[i] << '\n';
}
A human or a good static analyzer may determine that there really isn't a side effect on v in f(v, &v[i]) so that the loop can be rewritten.
Messing with the loop variable
in the body of a loop is typically best avoided.
Don't use expensive copies of the loop variable of a range-for loop:
for (string s : vs) // ...
This will copy each elements of vs into s. Better:
for (string& s : vs) // ...
Better still, if the loop variable isn't modified or copied:
for (const string& s : vs) // ...
Look at loops, if a traditional loop just looks at each element of a sequence, and there are no side-effects on what it does with the elements, rewrite the loop to a ranged-for loop.
for-statement to a while-statement when there is an obvious loop variableReadability: the complete logic of the loop is visible up front
. The scope of the loop variable can be limited.
for (int i = 0; i < vec.size(); i++) {
// do work
}
int i = 0;
while (i < vec.size()) {
// do work
i++;
}
???
while-statement to a for-statement when there is no obvious loop variable???
???
???
for-statementLimit the loop variable visibility to the scope of the loop. Avoid using the loop variable for other purposes after the loop.
for (int i = 0; i < 100; ++i) { // GOOD: i var is visible only inside the loop
// ...
}
int j; // BAD: j is visible outside the loop
for (j = 0; j < 100; ++j) {
// ...
}
// j is still visible here and isn't needed
See also: [Don't use a variable for two unrelated purposes](#Res-recycle)
Warn when a variable modified inside the for-statement is declared outside the loop and not being used outside the loop.
Discussion: Scoping the loop variable to the loop body also helps code optimizers greatly. Recognizing that the induction variable is only accessible in the loop body unblocks optimizations such as hoisting, strength reduction, loop-invariant code motion, etc.
do-statementsReadability, avoidance of errors. The termination condition is at the end (where it can be overlooked) and the condition is not checked the first time through. ???
int x;
do {
cin >> x;
// ...
} while (x < 0);
???
gotoReadability, avoidance of errors. There are better control structures for humans; goto is for machine generated code.
Breaking out of a nested loop. In that case, always jump forwards.
???
There is a fair amount of use of the C goto-exit idiom:
void f()
{
// ...
goto exit;
// ...
goto exit;
// ...
exit:
... common cleanup code ...
}
This is an ad-hoc simulation of destructors. Declare your resources with handles with destructors that clean up.
goto. Better still flag all gotos that do not jump from a nested loop to the statement immediately after a nest of loops.continue???
???
???
case with a breakAccidentally leaving out a break is a fairly common bug.
A deliberate fallthrough is a maintenance hazard.
switch (eventType)
{
case Information:
update_status_bar();
break;
case Warning:
write_event_log();
case Error:
display_error_window(); // Bad
break;
}
It is easy to overlook the fallthrough. Be explicit:
switch (eventType)
{
case Information:
update_status_bar();
break;
case Warning:
write_event_log();
// fallthrough
case Error:
display_error_window(); // Bad
break;
}
There is a proposal for a [[fallthrough]] annotation.
Multiple case labels of a single statement is OK:
switch (x) {
case 'a':
case 'b':
case 'f':
do_something(x);
break;
}
Flag all fallthroughs from non-empty cases.
default???
???
???
Readability.
for (i = 0; i < max; ++i); // BAD: the empty statement is easily overlooked
v[i] = f(v[i]);
for (auto x : v) { // better
// nothing
}
v[i] = f(v[i]);
Flag empty statements that are not blocks and don't contain comments.
The loop control up front should enable correct reasoning about what is happening inside the loop. Modifying loop counters in both the iteration-expression and inside the body of the loop is a perennial source of surprises and bugs.
for (int i = 0; i < 10; ++i) {
// no updates to i -- ok
}
for (int i = 0; i < 10; ++i) {
//
if (/* something */) ++i; // BAD
//
}
bool skip = false;
for (int i = 0; i < 10; ++i) {
if (skip) { skip = false; continue; }
//
if (/* something */) skip = true; // Better: using two variable for two concepts.
//
}
Flag variables that are potentially updated (have a non-const use) in both the loop control iteration-expression and the loop body.
Expressions manipulate values.
Complicated expressions are error-prone.
// bad: assignment hidden in subexpression
while ((c = getc()) != -1)
// bad: two non-local variables assigned in a sub-expressions
while ((cin >> c1, cin >> c2), c1 == c2)
// better, but possibly still too complicated
for (char c1, c2; cin >> c1 >> c2 && c1 == c2;)
// OK: if i and j are not aliased
int x = ++i + ++j;
// OK: if i != j and i != k
v[i] = v[j] + v[k];
// bad: multiple assignments "hidden" in subexpressions
x = a + (b = f()) + (c = g()) * 7;
// bad: relies on commonly misunderstood precedence rules
x = a & b + c * d && e ^ f == 7;
// bad: undefined behavior
x = x++ + x++ + ++x;
Some of these expressions are unconditionally bad (e.g., they rely on undefined behavior). Others are simply so complicated and/or unusual that even good programmers could misunderstand them or overlook a problem when in a hurry.
A programmer should know and use the basic rules for expressions.
x = k * y + z; // OK
auto t1 = k * y; // bad: unnecessarily verbose
x = t1 + z;
if (0 <= x && x < max) // OK
auto t1 = 0 <= x; // bad: unnecessarily verbose
auto t2 = x < max;
if (t1 && t2) // ...
Tricky. How complicated must an expression be to be considered complicated? Writing computations as statements with one operation each is also confusing. Things to consider:
Avoid errors. Readability. Not everyone has the operator table memorized.
const unsigned int flag = 2;
unsigned int a = flag;
if (a & flag != 0) // bad: means a&(flag != 0)
Note: We recommend that programmers know their precedence table for the arithmetic operations, the logical operations, but consider mixing bitwise logical operations with other operators in need of parentheses.
if ((a & flag) != 0) // OK: works as intended
You should know enough not to need parentheses for:
if (a < 0 || a <= max) {
// ...
}
Complicated pointer manipulation is a major source of errors.
span (exception ++p in simple loop???)???
We need a heuristic limiting the complexity of pointer arithmetic statement.
You have no idea what such code does. Portability. Even if it does something sensible for you, it may do something different on another compiler (e.g., the next release of your compiler) or with a different optimizer setting.
v[i] = ++i; // the result is undefined
A good rule of thumb is that you should not read a value twice in an expression where you write to it.
???
What is safe?
Can be detected by a good analyzer.
Because that order is unspecified.
int i = 0;
f(++i, ++i);
The call will most likely be f(0, 1) or f(1, 0), but you don't know which. Technically, the behavior is undefined.
??? overloaded operators can lead to order of evaluation problems (shouldn't :-()
f1()->m(f2()); // m(f1(), f2())
cout << f1() << f2(); // operator<<(operator<<(cout, f1()), f2())
Can be detected by a good analyzer.
magic constants; use symbolic constants
Unnamed constants embedded in expressions are easily overlooked and often hard to understand:
for (int m = 1; m <= 12; ++m) // don't: magic constant 12
cout << month[m] << '\n';
No, we don't all know that there are 12 months, numbered 1..12, in a year. Better:
constexpr int month_count = 12; // months are numbered 1..12
for (int m = first_month; m <= month_count; ++m) // better
cout << month[m] << '\n';
Better still, don't expose constants:
for (auto m : month)
cout << m << '\n';
Flag literals in code. Give a pass to 0, 1, nullptr, \n, "", and others on a positive list.
A narrowing conversion destroys information, often unexpectedly so.
A key example is basic narrowing:
double d = 7.9;
int i = d; // bad: narrowing: i becomes 7
i = (int) d; // bad: we're going to claim this is still not explicit enough
void f(int x, long y, double d)
{
char c1 = x; // bad: narrowing
char c2 = y; // bad: narrowing
char c3 = d; // bad: narrowing
}
The guideline support library offers a narrow operation for specifying that narrowing is acceptable and a narrow (narrow if
) that throws an exception if a narrowing would throw away information:
i = narrow_cast<int>(d); // OK (you asked for it): narrowing: i becomes 7
i = narrow<int>(d); // OK: throws narrowing_error
We also include lossy arithmetic casts, such as from a negative floating point type to an unsigned integral type:
double d = -7.9;
unsigned u = 0;
u = d; // BAD
u = narrow_cast<unsigned>(d); // OK (you asked for it): u becomes 0
u = narrow<unsigned>(d); // OK: throws narrowing_error
A good analyzer can detect all narrowing conversions. However, flagging all narrowing conversions will lead to a lot of false positives. Suggestions:
float->char and double->int. Here be dragons! we need data)long->char (I suspect int->char is very common. Here be dragons! we need data)nullptr rather than 0 or NULLReadability. Minimize surprises: nullptr cannot be confused with an
int. nullptr also has a well-specified (very restrictive) type, and thus
works in more scenarios where type deduction might do the wrong thing on NULL
or 0.
Consider:
void f(int);
void f(char*);
f(0); // call f(int)
f(nullptr); // call f(char*)
Flag uses of 0 and NULL for pointers. The transformation may be helped by simple program transformation.
Casts are a well-known source of errors. Makes some optimizations unreliable.
???
Programmer who write casts typically assumes that they know what they are doing. In fact, they often disable the general rules for using values. Overload resolution and template instantiation usually pick the right function if there is a right function to pick. If there is not, maybe there ought to be, rather than applying a local fix (cast).
Casts are necessary in a systems programming language. For example, how else would we get the address of a device register into a pointer? However, casts are seriously overused as well as a major source of errors.
If you feel the need for a lot of casts, there may be a fundamental design problem.
Readability. Error avoidance. Named casts are more specific than a C-style or functional cast, allowing the compiler to catch some errors.
The named casts are:
static_castconst_castreinterpret_castdynamic_caststd::move // move(x) is an rvalue reference to xstd::forward // forward(x) is an rvalue reference to xgsl::narrow_cast // narrow_cast<T>(x) is static_cast<T>(x)gsl::narrow // narrow<T>(x) is static_cast<T>(x) if static_cast<T>(x) == x or it throws narrowing_error???
When converting between types with no information loss (e.g. from float to
double or int64 from int32), brace initialization may be used instead.
double d{some_float};
int64_t i{some_int32};
This makes it clear that the type conversion was intended and also prevents
conversions between types that might result in loss of precision. (It is a
compilation error to try to initialize a float from a double in this fashion,
for example.)
Flag C-style and functional casts.
constIt makes a lie out of const.
Usually the reason to cast away `const`
is to allow the updating of some transient information of an otherwise immutable object.
Examples are caching, memoization, and precomputation.
Such examples are often handled as well or better using mutable or an indirection than with a const_cast.
Consider keeping previously computed results around for a costly operation:
int compute(int x); // compute a value for x; assume this to be costly
class Cache { // some type implementing a cache for an int->int operation
public:
pair<bool, int> find(int x) const; // is there a value for x?
void set(int x, int v); // make y the value for x
// ...
private:
// ...
};
class X {
public:
int get_val(int x)
{
auto p = cache.find(x);
if (p.first) return p.second;
int val = compute(x);
cache.set(x, val); // insert value for x
return val;
}
// ...
private:
Cache cache;
};
Here, get_val() is logically constant, so we would like to make it a const member.
To do this we still need to mutate cache, so people sometimes resort to a const_cast:
class X { // Suspicious solution based on casting
public:
int get_val(int x) const
{
auto p = cache.find(x);
if (p.first) return p.second;
int val = compute(x);
const_cast<Cache&>(cache).set(x, val); // ugly
return val;
}
// ...
private:
Cache cache;
};
Fortunately, there is a better solution:
State that cache is mutable even for a const object:
class X { // better solution
public:
int get_val(int x) const
{
auto p = cache.find(x);
if (p.first) return p.second;
int val = compute(x);
cache.set(x, val);
return val;
}
// ...
private:
mutable Cache cache;
};
An alternative solution would to store a pointer to the cache:
class X { // OK, but slightly messier solution
public:
int get_val(int x) const
{
auto p = cache->find(x);
if (p.first) return p.second;
int val = compute(x);
cache->set(x, val);
return val;
}
// ...
private:
unique_ptr<Cache> cache;
};
That solution is the most flexible, but requires explicit construction and destruction of *cache
(most likely in the constructor and destructor of X).
In any variant, we must guard against data races on the cache in multithreaded code, possibly using a std::mutex.
Flag const_casts.
Constructs that cannot overflow do not overflow (and usually run faster):
for (auto& x : v) // print all elements of v
cout << x << '\n';
auto p = find(v, x); // find x in v
Look for explicit range checks and heuristically suggest alternatives.
std::move() only when you need to explicitly move an object to another scopeWe move, rather than copy, to avoid duplication and for improved performance.
A move typically leaves behind an empty object ([C.64](#Rc-move-semantic)), which can be surprising or even dangerous, so we try to avoid moving from lvalues (they might be accessed later).
Moving is done implicitly when the source is an rvalue (e.g., value in a return treatment or a function result), so don't pointlessly complicate code in those cases by writing move explicitly. Instead, write short functions that return values, and both the function's return and the caller's accepting of the return will be optimized naturally.
In general, following the guidelines in this document (including not making variables' scopes needlessly large, writing short functions that return values, returning local variables) help eliminate most need for explicit std::move.
Explicit move is needed to explicitly move an object to another scope, notably to pass it to a sink
function and in the implementations of the move operations themselves (move constructor, move assignment operator) and swap operations.
void sink(X&& x); // sink takes ownership of x
void user()
{
X x;
// error: cannot bind an lvalue to a rvalue reference
sink(x);
// OK: sink takes the contents of x, x must now be assumed to be empty
sink(std::move(x));
// ...
// probably a mistake
use(x);
}
Usually, a std::move() is used as an argument to a && parameter.
And after you do that, assume the object has been moved from (see [C.64](#Rc-move-semantic)) and don't read its state again until you first set it to a new value.
void f() {
string s1 = "supercalifragilisticexpialidocious";
string s2 = s1; // ok, takes a copy
assert(s1 == "supercalifragilisticexpialidocious"); // ok
// bad, if you want to keep using s1's value
string s3 = move(s1);
// bad, assert will likely fail, s1 likely changed
assert(s1 == "supercalifragilisticexpialidocious");
}
void sink(unique_ptr<widget> p); // pass ownership of p to sink()
void f() {
auto w = make_unique<widget>();
// ...
sink(std::move(w)); // ok, give to sink()
// ...
sink(w); // Error: unique_ptr is carefully designed so that you cannot copy it
}
std::move() is a cast to && in disguise; it doesn't itself move anything, but marks a named object as a candidate that can be moved from.
The language already knows the common cases where objects can be moved from, especially when returning values from functions, so don't complicate code with redundant std::move()'s.
Never write std::move() just because you've heard it's more efficient.
In general, don't believe claims of efficiency
without data (???).
In general, don't complicate your code without reason (??)
vector<int> make_vector() {
vector<int> result;
// ... load result with data
return std::move(result); // bad; just write "return result;"
}
Never write return move(local_variable);, because the language already knows the variable is a move candidate.
Writing move in this code won't help, and can actually be detrimental because on some compilers it interferes with RVO (the return value optimization) by creating an additional reference alias to the local variable.
vector<int> v = std::move(make_vector()); // bad; the std::move is entirely redundant
Never write move on a returned value such as x = move(f()); where f returns by value.
The language already knows that a returned value is a temporary object that can be moved from.
void mover(X&& x) {
call_something(std::move(x)); // ok
call_something(std::forward<X>(x)); // bad, don't std::forward an rvalue reference
call_something(x); // suspicious, why not std::move?
}
template<class T>
void forwarder(T&& t) {
call_something(std::move(t)); // bad, don't std::move a forwarding reference
call_something(std::forward<T>(t)); // ok
call_something(t); // suspicious, why not std::forward?
}
std::move(x) where x is an rvalue or the language will already treat it as an rvalue, including return std::move(local_variable); and std::move(f()) on a function that returns by value.S&& parameter if there is no const S& overload to take care of lvalues.std::moves argument passed to a parameter, except when the parameter type is one of the following: an X&& rvalue reference; a T&& forwarding reference where T is a template parameter type; or by value and the type is move-only.std::move is applied to a forwarding reference (T&& where T is a template parameter type). Use std::forward instead.std::move is applied to other than an rvalue reference. (More general case of the previous rule to cover the non-forwarding cases.)std::forward is applied to an rvalue reference (X&& where X is a concrete type). Use std::move instead.std::forward is applied to other than a forwarding reference. (More general case of the previous rule to cover the non-moving cases.)const operation; there should first be an intervening non-const operation, ideally assignment, to first reset the object's value.new and delete outside resource management functionsDirect resource management in application code is error-prone and tedious.
also known as No naked `new`!
void f(int n)
{
auto p = new X[n]; // n default constructed Xs
// ...
delete[] p;
}
There can be code in the ... part that causes the delete never to happen.
See also: [R: Resource management](#S-resource).
Flag naked news and naked deletes.
delete[] and non-arrays using deleteThat's what the language requires and mistakes can lead to resource release errors and/or memory corruption.
void f(int n)
{
auto p = new X[n]; // n default constructed Xs
// ...
delete p; // error: just delete the object p, rather than delete the array p[]
}
This example not only violates the [no naked new rule](#Res-new) as in the previous example, it has many more problems.
new and the delete is in the same scope, mistakes can be flagged.new and the delete are in a constructor/destructor pair, mistakes can be flagged.The result of doing so is undefined.
void f(int n)
{
int a1[7];
int a2[9];
if (&a1[5] < &a2[7]) {} // bad: undefined
if (0 < &a1[5] - &a2[7]) {} // bad: undefined
}
This example has many more problems.
???
Slicing -- that is, copying only part of an object using assignment or initialization -- most often leads to errors because the object was meant to be considered as a whole. In the rare cases where the slicing was deliberate the code can be surprising.
class Shape { /* ... */ };
class Circle : public Shape { /* ... */ Point c; int r; };
Circle c {{0, 0}, 42};
Shape s {c}; // copy Shape part of Circle
The result will be meaningless because the center and radius will not be copied from c into s.
The first defense against this is to [define the base class Shape not to allow this](#Rc-copy-virtual).
If you mean to slice, define an explicit operation to do so. This saves readers from confusion. For example:
class Smiley : public Circle {
public:
Circle copy_circle();
// ...
};
Smiley sm { /* ... */ };
Circle c1 {sm}; // ideally prevented by the definition of Circle
Circle c2 {sm.copy_circle()};
Warn against slicing.
Avoid wrong results.
int x = -3;
unsigned int y = 7;
cout << x - y << '\n'; // unsigned result, possibly 4294967286
cout << x + y << '\n'; // unsigned result: 4
cout << x * y << '\n'; // unsigned result, possibly 4294967275
It is harder to spot the problem in more realistic examples.
Unfortunately, C++ uses signed integers for array subscripts and the standard library uses unsigned integers for container subscripts. This precludes consistency.
Compilers already know and sometimes warn.
Unsigned types support bit manipulation without surprises from sign bits.
unsigned char x = 0b1010'1010;
unsigned char y = ~x; // y == 0b0101'0101;
Unsigned types can also be useful for modulo arithmetic. However, if you want modulo arithmetic add comments as necessary noting the reliance on wraparound behavior, as such code can be surprising for many programmers.
Because most arithmetic is assumed to be signed;
x-y yields a negative number when y>x except in the rare cases where you really want modulo arithmetic.
Unsigned arithmetic can yield surprising results if you are not expecting it. This is even more true for mixed signed and unsigned arithmetic.
template<typename T, typename T2>
T subtract(T x, T2 y)
{
return x-y;
}
void test()
{
int s = 5;
unsigned int us = 5;
cout << subtract(s, 7) << '\n'; // -2
cout << subtract(us, 7u) << '\n'; // 4294967294
cout << subtract(s, 7u) << '\n'; // -2
cout << subtract(us, 7) << '\n'; // 4294967294
cout << subtract(s, us+2) << '\n'; // -2
cout << subtract(us, s+2) << '\n'; // 4294967294
}
Here we have been very explicit about what's happening,
but if you had seen us-(s+2) or s+=2; ... us-s, would you reliably have suspected that the result would print as 4294967294?
Use unsigned types if you really want modulo arithmetic - add comments as necessary noting the reliance on overflow behavior, as such code is going to be surprising for many programmers.
The standard library uses unsigned types for subscripts. The build-in array uses signed types for subscripts. This makes surprises (and bugs) inevitable.
int a[10];
for (int i=0; i < 10; ++i) a[i]=i;
vector<int> v(10);
// compares signed to unsigned; some compilers warn
for (int i=0; v.size() < 10; ++i) v[i]=i;
int a2[-2]; // error: negative size
// OK, but the number of ints (4294967294) is so large that we should get an exception
vector<int> v2(-2);
-2) used as container subscripts.Overflow usually makes your numeric algorithm meaningless. Incrementing a value beyond a maximum value can lead to memory corruption and undefined behavior.
int a[10];
a[10] = 7; // bad
int n = 0;
while (n++ < 10)
a[n - 1] = 9; // bad (twice)
int n = numeric_limits<int>::max();
int m = n + 1; // bad
int area(int h, int w) { return h * w; }
auto a = area(10'000'000, 100'000'000); // bad
Use unsigned types if you really want modulo arithmetic.
Alternative: For critical applications that can afford some overhead, use a range-checked integer and/or floating-point type.
???
Decrementing a value beyond a minimum value can lead to memory corruption and undefined behavior.
int a[10];
a[-2] = 7; // bad
int n = 101;
while (n--)
a[n - 1] = 9; // bad (twice)
Use unsigned types if you really want modulo arithmetic.
???
The result is undefined and probably a crash.
This also applies to %.
double divide(int a, int b) {
// BAD, should be checked (e.g., in a precondition)
return a / b;
}
double divide(int a, int b) {
// good, address via precondition (and replace with contracts once C++ gets them)
Expects(b != 0);
return a / b;
}
double divide(int a, int b) {
// good, address via check
return b ? a / b : quiet_NaN<double>();
}
Alternative: For critical applications that can afford some overhead, use a range-checked integer and/or floating-point type.
??? should this section be in the main guide???
This section contains rules for people who need high performance or low-latency. That is, these are rules that relate to how to use as little time and as few resources as possible to achieve a task in a predictably short time. The rules in this section are more restrictive and intrusive than what is needed for many (most) applications. Do not blindly try to follow them in general code: achieving the goals of low latency requires extra work.
Performance rule summary:
If there is no need for optimization, the main result of the effort will be more errors and higher maintenance costs.
Some people optimize out of habit or because it's fun.
???
Elaborately optimized code is usually larger and harder to change than unoptimized code.
???
Optimizing a non-performance-critical part of a program has no effect on system performance.
If your program spends most of its time waiting for the web or for a human, optimization of in-memory computation is probably useless.
Put another way: If your program spends 4% of its processing time doing computation A and 40% of its time doing computation B, a 50% improvement on A is only as impactful as a 5% improvement on B. (If you don't even know how much time is spent on A or B, see Per.1 and Per.2.)
Simple code can be very fast. Optimizers sometimes do marvels with simple code
// clear expression of intent, fast execution
vector<uint8_t> v(100000);
for (auto& c : v)
c = ~c;
// intended to be faster, but is actually slower
vector<uint8_t> v(100000);
for (size_t i = 0; i < v.size(); i += sizeof(uint64_t))
{
uint64_t& quad_word = *reinterpret_cast<uint64_t*>(&v[i]);
quad_word = ~quad_word;
}
???
???
Low-level code sometimes inhibits optimizations. Optimizers sometimes do marvels with high-level code.
???
???
The field of performance is littered with myth and bogus folklore. Modern hardware and optimizers defy naive assumptions; even experts are regularly surprised.
Getting good performance measurements can be hard and require specialized tools.
A few simple microbenchmarks using Unix time or the standard library <chrono> can help dispel the most obvious myths.
If you can't measure your complete system accurately, at least try to measure a few of your key operations and algorithms.
A profiler can help tell you which parts of your system are performance critical.
Often, you will be surprised.
???
Because we often need to optimize the initial design. Because a design that ignore the possibility of later improvement is hard to change.
From the C (and C++) standard:
void qsort (void* base, size_t num, size_t size, int (*compar)(const void*, const void*));
When did you even want to sort memory?
Really, we sort sequences of elements, typically stored in containers.
A call to qsort throws away much useful information (e.g., the element type), forces the user to repeat information
already known (e.g., the element size), and forces the user to write extra code (e.g., a function to compare doubles).
This implies added work for the programmer, is error prone, and deprives the compiler of information needed for optimization.
double data[100];
// ... fill a ...
// 100 chunks of memory of sizeof(double) starting at
// address data using the order defined by compare_doubles
qsort(data, 100, sizeof(double), compare_doubles);
From the point of view of interface design is that qsort throws away useful information.
We can do better (in C++98)
template<typename Iter>
void sort(Iter b, Iter e); // sort [b:e)
sort(data, data + 100);
Here, we use the compiler's knowledge about the size of the array, the type of elements, and how to compare doubles.
With C++11 plus [concepts](#???), we can do better still
// Sortable specifies that c must be a
// random-access sequence of elements comparable with <
void sort(Sortable& c);
sort(c);
The key is to pass sufficient information for a good implementation to be chosen.
In this, the sort interfaces shown here still have a weakness:
They implicitly rely on the element type having less-than (<) defined.
To complete the interface, we need a second version that accepts a comparison criteria:
// compare elements of c using p
void sort(Sortable& c, Predicate<Value_type<Sortable>> p);
The standard-library specification of sort offers those two versions,
but the semantics is expressed in English rather than code using concepts.
Premature optimization is said to be [the root of all evil](#Rper-Knuth), but that's not a reason to despise performance. It is never premature to consider what makes a design amenable to improvement, and improved performance is a commonly desired improvement. Aim to build a set of habits that by default results in efficient, maintainable, and optimizable code. In particular, when you write a function that is not a one-off implementation detail, consider
std::vector and [access it in a systematic fashion](#Rper-access).
If you think you need a linked structure, try to craft the interface so that this structure isn't seen by users.optimizedways of passing data can seriously complicate later reimplementation.
providing a wrapperfor the useful/necessary but messy code. Don't let bad designs
bleed intoyour code.
Consider:
template <class ForwardIterator, class T>
bool binary_search(ForwardIterator first, ForwardIterator last, const T& val);
binary_search(begin(c), end(c), 7) will tell you whether 7 is in c or not.
However, it will not tell you where that 7 is or whether there are more than one 7.
Sometimes, just passing the minimal amount of information back (here, true or false) is sufficient, but a good interface passes
needed information back to the caller. Therefore, the standard library also offers
template <class ForwardIterator, class T>
ForwardIterator lower_bound(ForwardIterator first, ForwardIterator last, const T& val);
lower_bound returns an iterator to the first match if any, otherwise last.
However, lower_bound still doesn't return enough information for all uses, so the standard library also offers
template <class ForwardIterator, class T>
pair<ForwardIterator, ForwardIterator>
equal_range(ForwardIterator first, ForwardIterator last, const T& val);
equal_range returns a pair of iterators specifying the first and one beyond last match.
auto r = equal_range(begin(c), end(c), 7);
for (auto p = r.first(); p != r.second(), ++p)
cout << *p << '\n';
Obviously, these three interfaces are implemented by the same basic code.
They are simply three ways of presenting the basic binary search algorithm to users,
ranging from the simplest (make simple things simple!
)
to returning complete, but not always needed, information (don't hide useful information
).
Naturally, crafting such a set of interfaces requires experience and domain knowledge.
Do not simply craft the interface to match the first implementation and the first use case you think of. Once your first initial implementation is complete, review it; once you deploy it, mistakes will be hard to remedy.
A need for efficiency does not imply a need for [low-level code](#Rper-low). High-level code does not imply slow or bloated.
Things have costs. Don't be paranoid about costs (modern computers really are very fast), but have a rough idea of the order of magnitude of cost of what you use. For example, have a rough idea of the cost of a memory access, a function call, a string comparison, a system call, a disk access, and a message through a network.
If you can only think of one implementation, you probably don't have something for which you can devise a stable interface.
Maybe, it is just an implementation detail - not every piece of code needs a stable interface - but pause and consider.
One question that can be useful is
what interface would be needed if this operation should be implemented using multiple threads? be vectorized?
This rule does not contradict the [Don't optimize prematurely](#Rper-Knuth) rule. It complements it encouraging developers enable later - appropriate and non-premature - optimization, if and where needed.
Tricky.
Maybe looking for void* function arguments will find examples of interfaces that hinder later optimization.
Type violations, weak types (e.g. void*s), and low level code (e.g., manipulation of sequences as individual bytes) make the job of the optimizer much harder. Simple code often optimizes better than hand-crafted complex code.
???
???
???
???
???
???
Performance is typically dominated by memory access times.
???
???
Performance is typically dominated by memory access times.
???
Performance is very sensitive to cache performance and cache algorithms favor simple (usually linear) access to adjacent data.
int matrix[rows][cols];
// bad
for (int c = 0; c < cols; ++c)
for (int r = 0; r < rows; ++r)
sum += matrix[r][c];
// good
for (int r = 0; r < rows; ++r)
for (int c = 0; c < cols; ++c)
sum += matrix[r][c];
???
We often want our computers to do many tasks at the same time (or at least make them appear to do them at the same time). The reasons for doing so varies (e.g., wanting to wait for many events using only a single processor, processing many data streams simultaneously, or utilizing many hardware facilities) and so does the basic facilities for expressing concurrency and parallelism. Here, we articulate a few general principles and rules for using the ISO standard C++ facilities for expressing basic concurrency and parallelism.
The core machine support for concurrent and parallel programming is the thread.
Threads allow you to run multiple instances of your program independently, while sharing
the same memory. Concurrent programming is tricky for many reasons, most
importantly that it is undefined behavior to read data in one thread after it
was written by another thread, if there is no proper synchronization between
those threads. Making existing single-threaded code execute concurrently can be
as trivial as adding std::async or std::thread strategically, or it can
necessitate a full rewrite, depending on whether the original code was written
in a thread-friendly way.
The concurrency/parallelism rules in this document are designed with three goals in mind:
It is also important to note that concurrency in C++ is an unfinished story. C++11 introduced many core concurrency primitives, C++14 improved on them, and it seems that there is much interest in making the writing of concurrent programs in C++ even easier. We expect some of the library-related guidance here to change significantly over time.
This section needs a lot of work (obviously). Please note that we start with rules for relative non-experts. Real experts must wait a bit; contributions are welcome, but please think about the majority of programmers who are struggling to get their concurrent programs correct and performant.
Concurrency and parallelism rule summary:
volatile for synchronization](#Rconc-volatile)See also:
It is hard to be certain that concurrency isn't used now or will be sometime in the future. Code gets re-used. Libraries using threads may be used from some other part of the program. Note that this applies most urgently to library code and least urgently to stand-alone applications. However, thanks to the magic of cut-and-paste, code fragments can turn up in unexpected places.
double cached_computation(double x)
{
static double cached_x = 0.0;
static double cached_result = COMPUTATION_OF_ZERO;
double result;
if (cached_x == x)
return cached_result;
result = computation(x);
cached_x = x;
cached_result = result;
return result;
}
Although cached_computation works perfectly in a single-threaded environment, in a multi-threaded environment the two static variables result in data races and thus undefined behavior.
There are several ways that this example could be made safe for a multi-threaded environment:
static variables as thread_local (which might make caching less effective).static variables with a static lock (which might reduce performance).Code that is never run in a multi-threaded environment.
Be careful: there are many examples where code that was known
to never run in a multi-threaded program
was run as part of a multi-threaded program. Often years later.
Typically, such programs lead to a painful effort to remove data races.
Therefore, code that is never intended to run in a multi-threaded environment should be clearly labeled as such and ideally come with compile or run-time enforcement mechanisms to catch those usage bugs early.
Unless you do, nothing is guaranteed to work and subtle errors will persist.
In a nutshell, if two threads can access the same object concurrently (without synchronization), and at least one is a writer (performing a non-const operation), you have a data race.
For further information of how to use synchronization well to eliminate data races, please consult a good book about concurrency.
There are many examples of data races that exist, some of which are running in production software at this very moment. One very simple example:
int get_id() {
static int id = 1;
return id++;
}
The increment here is an example of a data race. This can go wrong in many ways, including:
id, the OS context switches A out for some
period, during which other threads create hundreds of IDs. Thread A is then
allowed to run again, and id is written back to that location as A's read of
id plus one.id and increment it simultaneously. They both get the
same ID.Local static variables are a common source of data races.
void f(fstream& fs, regex pat)
{
array<double, max> buf;
int sz = read_vec(fs, buf, max); // read from fs into buf
gsl::span<double> s {buf};
// ...
auto h1 = async([&]{ sort(par, s); }); // spawn a task to sort
// ...
auto h2 = async([&]{ return find_all(buf, sz, pat); }); // span a task to find matches
// ...
}
Here, we have a (nasty) data race on the elements of buf (sort will both read and write).
All data races are nasty.
Here, we managed to get a data race on data on the stack.
Not all data races are as easy to spot as this one.
// code not controlled by a lock
unsigned val;
if (val < 5) {
// ... other thread can change val here ...
switch (val) {
case 0: // ...
case 1: // ...
case 2: // ...
case 3: // ...
case 4: // ...
}
}
Now, a compiler that does not know that val can change will most likely implement that switch using a jump table with five entries.
Then, a val outside the [0..4] range will cause a jump to an address that could be anywhere in the program, and execution would proceed there.
Really, all bets are off
if you get a data race.
Actually, it can be worse still: by looking at the generated code you may be able to determine where the stray jump will go for a given value;
this can be a security risk.
Some is possible, do at least something. There are commercial and open-source tools that try to address this problem, but static tools often have many false positives and run-time tools often have a significant cost. We hope for better tools.
Help the tools:
static variablesconstexpr, and const)If you don't share writable data, you can't have a data race. The less sharing you do, the less chance you have to forget to synchronize access (and get data races). The less sharing you do, the less chance you have to wait on a lock (so performance can improve).
bool validate(const vector<Reading>&);
Graph<Temp_node> temperature_gradiants(const vector<Reading>&);
Image altitude_map(const vector<Reading>&);
// ...
void process_readings(istream& socket1)
{
vector<Reading> surface_readings;
socket1 >> surface_readings;
if (!socket1) throw Bad_input{};
auto h1 = async([&] { if (!validate(surface_readings) throw Invalide_data{}; });
auto h2 = async([&] { return temperature_gradiants(surface_readings); });
auto h3 = async([&] { return altitude_map(surface_readings); });
// ...
auto v1 = h1.get();
auto v2 = h2.get();
auto v3 = h3.get();
// ...
}
Without those consts, we would have to review every asynchronously invoked function for potential data races on surface_readings.
Immutable data can be safely and efficiently shared. No locking is needed: You can't have a data race on a constant.
???
A thread is an implementation concept, a way of thinking about the machine.
A task is an application notion, something you'd like to do, preferably concurrently with other tasks.
Application concepts are easier to reason about.
???
With the exception of async(), the standard-library facilities are low-level, machine-oriented, threads-and-lock level.
This is a necessary foundation, but we have to try to raise the level of abstraction: for productivity, for reliability, and for performance.
This is a potent argument for using higher level, more applications-oriented libraries (if possibly, built on top of standard-library facilities).
???
volatile for synchronizationIn C++, unlike some other languages, volatile does not provide atomicity, does not synchronize between threads,
and does not prevent instruction reordering (neither compiler nor hardware).
It simply has nothing to do with concurrency.
int free_slots = max_slots; // current source of memory for objects
Pool* use()
{
if (int n = free_slots--) return &pool[n];
}
Here we have a problem:
This is perfectly good code in a single-threaded program, but have two treads execute this and
there is a race condition on free_slots so that two threads might get the same value and free_slots.
That's (obviously) a bad data race, so people trained in other languages may try to fix it like this:
volatile int free_slots = max_slots; // current source of memory for objects
Pool* use()
{
if (int n = free_slots--) return &pool[n];
}
This has no effect on synchronization: The data race is still there!
The C++ mechanism for this is atomic types:
atomic<int> free_slots = max_slots; // current source of memory for objects
Pool* use()
{
if (int n = free_slots--) return &pool[n];
}
Now the -- operation is atomic,
rather than a read-increment-write sequence where another thread might get in-between the individual operations.
Use atomic types where you might have used volatile in some other language.
Use a mutex for more complicated examples.
[(rare) proper uses of volatile](#Rconc-volatile2)
This section focuses on relatively ad-hoc uses of multiple threads communicating through shared data.
Concurrency rule summary:
lock()/unlock()](#Rconc-raii)std::lock() to acquire multiple mutexes](#Rconc-lock)thread as a scoped container](#Rconc-join)thread as a global container](#Rconc-detach)gsl::raii_thread over std::thread unless you plan to detach()](#Rconc-raii_thread)gsl::detached_thread over std::thread if you plan to detach()](#Rconc-detached_thread)std::thread for threads that detach based on a run-time condition (only)](#Rconc-thread)threads that are not detach()ed](#Rconc-join-undetached)raii_threads](#Rconc-pass)threads use shared_ptr](#Rconc-shared)wait without a condition](#Rconc-wait)lock_guards and unique_locks](#Rconc-name)mutex together with the data it protects](#Rconc-mutex)try_lock()lock_guard over unique_locknew threadlock()/unlock()Avoids nasty errors from unreleased locks.
mutex mtx;
void do_stuff()
{
mtx.lock();
// ... do stuff ...
mtx.unlock();
}
Sooner or later, someone will forget the mtx.unlock(), place a return in the ... do stuff ..., throw an exception, or something.
mutex mtx;
void do_stuff()
{
unique_lock<mutex> lck {mtx};
// ... do stuff ...
}
Flag calls of member lock() and unlock(). ???
std::lock() to acquire multiple mutexesTo avoid deadlocks on multiple mutexs
This is asking for deadlock:
// thread 1
lock_guard<mutex> lck1(m1);
lock_guard<mutex> lck2(m2);
// thread 2
lock_guard<mutex> lck2(m2);
lock_guard<mutex> lck1(m1);
Instead, use lock():
// thread 1
lock_guard<mutex> lck1(m1, defer_lock);
lock_guard<mutex> lck2(m2, defer_lock);
lock(lck1, lck2);
// thread 2
lock_guard<mutex> lck2(m2, defer_lock);
lock_guard<mutex> lck1(m1, defer_lock);
lock(lck2, lck1);
Here, the writers of thread1 and thread2 are still not agreeing on the order of the mutexes, but order no longer matters.
In real code, mutexes are rarely named to conveniently remind the programmer of an intended relation and intended order of acquisition.
In real code, mutexes are not always conveniently acquired on consecutive lines.
I'm really looking forward to be able to write plain
lock_guard lck1(m1, defer_lock);
and have the mutex type deduced.
Detect the acquisition of multiple mutexes.
This is undecidable in general, but catching common simple examples (like the one above) is easy.
If you don't know what a piece of code does, you are risking deadlock.
void do_this(Foo* p)
{
lock_guard<mutex> lck {my_mutex};
// ... do something ...
p->act(my_data);
// ...
}
If you don't know what Foo::act does (maybe it is a virtual function invoking a derived class member of a class not yet written),
it may call do_this (recursively) and cause a deadlock on my_mutex.
Maybe it will lock on a different mutex and not return in a reasonable time, causing delays to any code calling do_this.
A common example of the calling unknown code
problem is a call to a function that tries to gain locked access to the same object.
Such problem can often be solved by using a recursive_mutex. For example:
recursive_mutex my_mutex;
template<typename Action>
void do_something(Action f)
{
unique_lock<recursive_mutex> lck {my_mutex};
// ... do something ...
f(this); // f will do something to *this
// ...
}
If, as it is likely, f() invokes operations on *this, we must make sure that the object's invariant holds before the call.
mutex heldmutex heldthread as a scoped containerTo maintain pointer safety and avoid leaks, we need to consider what pointers are used by a thread.
If a thread joins, we can safely pass pointers to objects in the scope of the thread and its enclosing scopes.
void f(int * p)
{
// ...
*p = 99;
// ...
}
int glob = 33;
void some_fct(int* p)
{
int x = 77;
raii_thread t0(f, &x); // OK
raii_thread t1(f, p); // OK
raii_thread t2(f, &glob); // OK
auto q = make_unique<int>(99);
raii_thread t3(f, q.get()); // OK
// ...
}
An raii_thread is a std::thread with a destructor that joined and cannot be detached().
By OK
we mean that the object will be in scope (live
) for as long as a thread can use the pointer to it.
The fact that threads run concurrently doesn't affect the lifetime or ownership issues here;
these threads can be seen as just a function object called from some_fct.
Ensure that raii_threads don't detach().
After that, the usual lifetime and ownership (for local objects) enforcement applies.
thread as a global containerTo maintain pointer safety and avoid leaks, we need to consider what pointers are used by a thread.
If a thread is detached, we can safely pass pointers to static and free store objects (only).
void f(int * p)
{
// ...
*p = 99;
// ...
}
int glob = 33;
void some_fct(int* p)
{
int x = 77;
std::thread t0(f, &x); // bad
std::thread t1(f, p); // bad
std::thread t2(f, &glob); // OK
auto q = make_unique<int>(99);
std::thread t3(f, q.get()); // bad
// ...
t0.detach();
t1.detach();
t2.detach();
t3.detach();
// ...
}
By OK
we mean that the object will be in scope (live
) for as long as a thread can use the pointers to it.
By bad
we mean that a thread may use a pointer after the pointed-to object is destroyed.
The fact that threads run concurrently doesn't affect the lifetime or ownership issues here;
these threads can be seen as just a function object called from some_fct.
In general, it is undecidable whether a detach() is executed for a thread, but simple common cases are easily detected.
If we cannot prove that a thread does not detach(), we must assume that it does and that it outlives the scope in which it was constructed;
After that, the usual lifetime and ownership (for global objects) enforcement applies.
gsl::raii_thread over std::thread unless you plan to detach()An raii_thread is a thread that joins at the end of its scope.
Detached threads are hard to monitor.
??? Place all immortal threads
on the free store rather than detach()?
???
???
gsl::detached_thread over std::thread if you plan to detach()Often, the need to detach is inherent in the threads task.
Documenting that aids comprehension and helps static analysis.
void heartbeat();
void use()
{
gsl::detached_thread t1(heartbeat); // obviously need not be joined
std::thread t2(heartbeat); // do we need to join? (read the code for heartbeat())
// ...
}
Flag unconditional detach on a plain thread
std::thread for threads that detach based on a run-time condition (only)threads that are supposed to unconditionally join or unconditionally detach can be clearly identified as such.
The plain threads should be assumed to use the full generality of std::thread.
void tricky(thread* t, int n)
{
// ...
if (is_odd(n))
t->detach();
// ...
}
void use(int n)
{
thread t { tricky, this, n };
// ...
// ... should I join here? ...
}
???
threads that are not detach()edA thread that has not been detach()ed when it is destroyed terminates the program.
void f() { std::cout << "Hello "; }
struct F {
void operator()() { std::cout << "parallel world "; }
};
int main()
{
std::thread t1{f}; // f() executes in separate thread
std::thread t2{F()}; // F()() executes in separate thread
} // spot the bugs
void f() { std::cout << "Hello "; }
struct F {
void operator()() { std::cout << "parallel world "; }
};
int main()
{
std::thread t1{f}; // f() executes in separate thread
std::thread t2{F()}; // F()() executes in separate thread
t1.join();
t2.join();
} // one bad bug left
??? Is cout synchronized?
joins for raii_threads ???detachs for detached_threadsraii_threadsIn general, you cannot know whether a non-raii_thread will outlive the scope of the variables, so that those pointers will become invalid.
void use()
{
int x = 7;
thread t0 { f, ref(x) };
// ...
t0.detach();
}
The detach may not be so easy to spot.
Use a raii_thread or don't pass the pointer.
??? put pointer to a local on a queue that is read by a longer-lived thread ???
Flag pointers to locals passed in the constructor of a plain thread.
Copying a small amount of data is cheaper to copy and access than to share it using some locking mechanism. Copying naturally gives unique ownership (simplifies code) and eliminates the possibility of data races.
Defining small amount
precisely is impossible.
string modify1(string);
void modify2(shared_ptr<string>);
void fct(string& s)
{
auto res = async(modify1, s);
async(modify2, &s);
}
The call of modify1 involves copying two string values; the call of modify2 does not.
On the other hand, the implementation of modify1 is exactly as we would have written it for single-threaded code,
whereas the implementation of modify2 will need some form of locking to avoid data races.
If the string is short (say 10 characters), the call of modify1 can be surprisingly fast;
essentially all the cost is in the thread switch. If the string is long (say 1,000,000 characters), copying it twice
is probably not a good idea.
Note that this argument has nothing to do with sync as such. It applies equally to considerations about whether to use
message passing or shared memory.
???
threads use shared_ptrIf threads are unrelated (that is, not known to be in the same scope or one within the lifetime of the other)
and they need to share free store memory that needs to be deleted, a shared_ptr (or equivalent) is the only
safe way to ensure proper deletion.
???
???
Context switches are expensive.
???
???
Thread creation is expensive.
void worker(Message m)
{
// process
}
void master(istream& is)
{
for (Message m; is >> m; )
run_list.push_back(new thread(worker, m));
}
This spawns a thread per message, and the run_list is presumably managed to destroy those tasks once they are finished.
Instead, we could have a set of pre-created worker threads processing the messages
Sync_queue<Message> work;
void master(istream& is)
{
for (Message m; is >> m; )
work.put(m);
}
void worker()
{
for (Message m; m = work.get(); ) {
// process
}
}
void workers() // set up worker threads (specifically 4 worker threads)
{
raii_thread w1 {worker};
raii_thread w2 {worker};
raii_thread w3 {worker};
raii_thread w4 {worker};
}
If your system has a good thread pool, use it. If your system has a good message queue, use it.
???
wait without a conditionA wait without a condition can miss a wakeup or wake up simply to find that there is no work to do.
std::condition_variable cv;
std::mutex mx;
void thread1()
{
while (true) {
// do some work ...
std::unique_lock<std::mutex> lock(mx);
cv.notify_one(); // wake other thread
}
}
void thread2()
{
while (true) {
std::unique_lock<std::mutex> lock(mx);
cv.wait(lock); // might block forever
// do work ...
}
}
Here, if some other thread consumes thread1's notification, thread2 can wait forever.
template<typename T>
class Sync_queue {
public:
void put(const T& val);
void put(T&& val);
void get(T& val);
private:
mutex mtx;
condition_variable cond; // this controls access
list<T> q;
};
template<typename T>
void Sync_queue<T>::put(const T& val)
{
lock_guard<mutex> lck(mtx);
q.push_back(val);
cond.notify_one();
}
template<typename T>
void Sync_queue<T>::get(T& val)
{
unique_lock<mutex> lck(mtx);
cond.wait(lck, [this]{ return !q.empty(); }); // prevent spurious wakeup
val = q.front();
q.pop_front();
}
Now if the queue is empty when a thread executing get() wakes up (e.g., because another thread has gotten to get() before it),
it will immediately go back to sleep, waiting.
Flag all waits without conditions.
The less time is spent with a mutex taken, the less chance that another thread has to wait,
and thread suspension and resumption are expensive.
void do_something() // bad
{
unique_lock<mutex> lck(my_lock);
do0(); // preparation: does not need lock
do1(); // transaction: needs locking
do2(); // cleanup: does not need locking
}
Here, we are holding the lock for longer than necessary: We should not have taken the lock before we needed it and should have released it again before starting the cleanup. We could rewrite this to
void do_something() // bad
{
do0(); // preparation: does not need lock
my_lock.lock();
do1(); // transaction: needs locking
my_lock.unlock();
do2(); // cleanup: does not need locking
}
But that compromises safety and violates the [use RAII](#Rconc-raii) rule. Instead, add a block for the critical section:
void do_something() // OK
{
do0(); // preparation: does not need lock
{
unique_lock<mutex> lck(my_lock);
do1(); // transaction: needs locking
}
do2(); // cleanup: does not need locking
}
Impossible in general.
Flag naked
lock() and unlock().
lock_guards and unique_locksAn unnamed local objects is a temporary that immediately goes out of scope.
unique_lock<mutex>(m1);
lock_guard<mutex> {m2};
lock(m1, m2);
This looks innocent enough, but it isn't.
Flag all unnamed lock_guards and unique_locks.
mutex together with the data it guardsIt should be obvious to a reader that the data is to be guarded and how.
struct Record {
std::mutex m; // take this mutex before accessing other members
// ...
};
??? Possible?
By parallelism
we refer to performing a task (more or less) simultaneously (in parallel with
) on many data items.
Parallelism rule summary:
The standard-library facilities are quite low level, focused on the needs of close-to the hardware critical programming using threads, mutexes, atomic types, etc.
Most people shouldn't work at this level: it's error-prone and development is slow.
If possible, use a higher level facility: messaging libraries, parallel algorithms, and vectorization.
This section looks at passing messages so that a programmer doesn't have to do explicit synchronization.
Message passing rules summary:
future to return a value from a concurrent task](#Rconc-future)async() to spawn a concurrent task](#Rconc-async)???? should there be a use X rather than `std::async`
where X is something that would use a better specified thread pool?
??? Is std::async worth using in light of future (and even existing, as libraries) parallelism facilities? What should the guidelines recommend if someone wants to parallelize, e.g., std::accumulate (with the additional precondition of commutativity), or merge sort?
future to return a value from a concurrent taskA future preserves the usual function call return semantics for asynchronous tasks.
The is no explicit locking and both correct (value) return and error (exception) return are handled simply.
???
???
???
async() to spawn a concurrent taskA future preserves the usual function call return semantics for asynchronous tasks.
The is no explicit locking and both correct (value) return and error (exception) return are handled simply.
???
Unfortunately, async() is not perfect.
For example, there is no guarantee that a thread pool is used to minimize thread construction.
In fact, most current async() implementations don't.
However, async() is simple and logically correct so until something better comes along
and unless you really need to optimize for many asynchronous tasks, stick with async().
???
Vectorization is a technique for executing a number of tasks concurrently without introducing explicit synchronization. An operation is simply applied to elements of a data structure (a vector, an array, etc.) in parallel. Vectorization has the interesting property of often requiring no non-local changes to a program. However, vectorization works best with simple data structures and with algorithms specifically crafted to enable it.
Vectorization rule summary:
Synchronization using mutexes and condition_variables can be relatively expensive.
Furthermore, it can lead to deadlock.
For performance and to eliminate the possibility of deadlock, we sometimes have to use the tricky low-level lock-free
facilities
that rely on briefly gaining exclusive (atomic
) access to memory.
Lock free programming is also used to implement higher-level concurrency mechanisms, such as threads and mutexes.
Lock-free programming rule summary:
It's error-prone and requires expert level knowledge of language features, machine architecture, and data structures.
extern atomic<Link*> head; // the shared head of a linked list
Link* nh = new Link(data, nullptr); // make a link ready for insertion
Link* h = head.load(); // read the shared head of the list
do {
if (h->data <= data) break; // if so, insert elsewhere
nh->next = h; // next element is the previous head
} while (!head.compare_exchange_weak(h, nh)); // write nh to head or to h
Spot the bug. It would be really hard to find through testing. Read up on the ABA problem.
[Atomic variables](#???) can be used simply and safely.
Higher-level concurrency mechanisms, such as threads and mutexes are implemented using lock-free programming.
Alternative: Use lock-free data structures implemented by others as part of some library.
The low-level hardware interfaces used by lock-free programming are among the hardest to implement well and among the areas where the most subtle portability problems occur. If you are doing lock-free programming for performance, you need to check for regressions.
Instruction reordering (static and dynamic) makes it hard for us to think effectively at this level (especially if you use relaxed memory models).
Experience, (semi)formal models and model checking can be useful.
Testing - often to an extreme extent - is essential.
Don't fly too close to the sun.
Have strong rules for re-testing in place that covers any change in hardware, operating system, compiler, and libraries.
With the exception of atomics and a few use standard patterns, lock-free programming is really an expert-only topic. Become an expert before shipping lock-free code for others to use.
Threads Basics, HPL TR 2009-259.
Memory Models: A Case for Rethinking Parallel Languages and Hardware, Communications of the ACM, August 2010.
Foundations of the C++ Concurrency Memory Model, PLDI 08.
Mathematizing C++ Concurrency, POPL 2011.
Since C++11, static local variables are now initialized in a thread-safe way. When combined with the RAII pattern, static local variables can replace the need for writing your own double-checked locking for initialization. std::call_once can also achieve the same purpose. Use either static local variables of C++11 or std::call_once instead of writing your own double-checked locking for initialization.
Example with std::call_once.
void f()
{
static std::once_flag my_once_flag;
std::call_once(my_once_flag, []()
{
// do this only once
});
// ...
}
Example with thread-safe static local variables of C++11.
void f()
{
// Assuming the compiler is compliant with C++11
static My_class my_object; // Constructor called only once
// ...
}
class My_class
{
public:
My_class()
{
// ...
}
};
??? Is it possible to detect the idiom?
Double-checked locking is easy to mess up. If you really need to write your own double-checked locking, in spite of the rules [CP.110: Do not write your own double-checked locking for initialization](#Rconc-double) and [CP.100: Don't use lock-free programming unless you absolutely have to](#Rconc-lockfree), then do it in a conventional pattern.
Even if the following example works correctly on most hardware platforms, it is not guaranteed to work by the C++ standard. The x_init.load(memory_order_relaxed) call may see a value from outside of the lock guard.
atomic<bool> x_init;
if (!x_init.load(memory_order_acquire)) {
lock_guard<mutex> lck(x_mutex);
if (!x_init.load(memory_order_relaxed)) {
// ... initialize x ...
x_init.store(true, memory_order_release);
}
}
One of the conventional patterns is below.
std::atomic<int> state;
// If state == SOME_ACTION_NEEDED maybe an action is needed, maybe not, we need to
// check again in a lock. However, if state != SOME_ACTION_NEEDED, then we can be
// sure that an action is not needed. This is the basic assumption of double-checked
// locking.
if (state == SOME_ACTION_NEEDED)
{
std::lock_guard<std::mutex> lock(mutex);
if (state == SOME_ACTION_NEEDED)
{
// do something
state = NO_ACTION_NEEDED;
}
}
In the example above (state == SOME_ACTION_NEEDED) could be any condition. It doesn't necessarily needs to be equality comparison. For example, it could as well be (size > MIN_SIZE_TO_TAKE_ACTION).
??? Is it possible to detect the idiom?
These rules defy simple categorization:
volatile only to talk to non-C++ memory](#Rconc-volatile2)volatile only to talk to non-C++ memoryvolatile is used to refer to objects that are shared with non-C++
code or hardware that does not follow the C++ memory model.
const volatile long clock;
This describes a register constantly updated by a clock circuit.
clock is volatile because its value will change without any action from the C++ program that uses it.
For example, reading clock twice will often yield two different values, so the optimizer had better not optimize away the second read in this code:
long t1 = clock;
// ... no use of clock here ...
long t2 = clock;
clock is const because the program should not try to write to clock.
Unless you are writing the lowest level code manipulating hardware directly, consider volatile an esoteric feature that is best avoided.
Usually C++ code receives volatile memory that is owned Elsewhere (hardware or another language):
int volatile* vi = get_hardware_memory_location();
// note: we get a pointer to someone else's memory here
// volatile says "treat this with extra respect"
Sometimes C++ code allocates the volatile memory and shares it with elsewhere
(hardware or another language) by deliberately escaping a pointer:
static volatile long vl;
please_use_this(&vl); // escape a reference to this to "elsewhere" (not C++)
volatile local variables are nearly always wrong -- how can they be shared with other languages or hardware if they're ephemeral?
The same applies almost as strongly to member variables, for the same reason.
void f() {
volatile int i = 0; // bad, volatile local variable
// etc.
}
class My_type {
volatile int i = 0; // suspicious, volatile member variable
// etc.
};
In C++, unlike in some other languages, volatile has [nothing to do with synchronization](#Rconc-volatile).
volatile T local and member variables; almost certainly you intended to use atomic<T> instead.???UNIX signal handling???. May be worth reminding how little is async-signal-safe, and how to communicate with a signal handler (best is probably not at all
)
Error handling involves:
It is not possible to recover from all errors. If recovery from an error is not possible, it is important to quickly get out
in a well-defined way. A strategy for error handling must be simple, or it becomes a source of even worse errors. Untested and rarely executed error-handling code is itself the source of many bugs.
The rules are designed to help avoid several kinds of errors:
unions and casts)deleted)Error-handling rule summary:
[E.8: State your postconditions](#Re-postcondition)
[E.12: Use noexcept when exiting a function because of a throw is impossible or unacceptable](#Re-noexcept)
[E.13: Never throw while being the direct owner of an object](#Re-never-throw)
[E.14: Use purpose-designed user-defined types as exceptions (not built-in types)](#Re-exception-types)
[E.15: Catch exceptions from a hierarchy by reference](#Re-exception-ref)
[E.16: Destructors, deallocation, and swap must never fail](#Re-never-fail)
[E.17: Don't try to catch every exception in every function](#Re-not-always)
[E.18: Minimize the use of explicit try/catch](#Re-catch)
[E.19: Use a final_action object to express cleanup if no suitable resource handle is available](#Re-finally)
[E.25: If you can't throw exceptions, simulate RAII for resource management](#Re-no-throw-raii)
[E.26: If you can't throw exceptions, consider failing fast](#Re-no-throw-crash)
[E.27: If you can't throw exceptions, use error codes systematically](#Re-no-throw-codes)
[E.28: Avoid error handling based on global state (e.g. errno)](#Re-no-throw)
A consistent and complete strategy for handling errors and resource leaks is hard to retrofit into a system.
To make error handling systematic, robust, and non-repetitive.
struct Foo {
vector<Thing> v;
File_handle f;
string s;
};
void use()
{
Foo bar {{Thing{1}, Thing{2}, Thing{monkey}}, {"my_file", "r"}, "Here we go!"};
// ...
}
Here, vector and strings constructors may not be able to allocate sufficient memory for their elements, vectors constructor may not be able copy the Things in its initializer list, and File_handle may not be able to open the required file.
In each case, they throw an exception for use()'s caller to handle.
If use() could handle the failure to construct bar it can take control using try/catch.
In either case, Foo's constructor correctly destroys constructed members before passing control to whatever tried to create a Foo.
Note that there is no return value that could contain an error code.
The File_handle constructor might be defined like this:
File_handle::File_handle(const string& name, const string& mode)
:f{fopen(name.c_str(), mode.c_str())}
{
if (!f)
throw runtime_error{"File_handle: could not open " + name + " as " + mode};
}
It is often said that exceptions are meant to signal exceptional events and failures.
However, that's a bit circular because what is exceptional?
Examples:
v[v.size()] = 7)In contrast, termination of an ordinary loop is not exceptional. Unless the loop was meant to be infinite, termination is normal and expected.
Don't use a throw as simply an alternative way of returning a value from a function.
Some systems, such as hard-real time systems require a guarantee that an action is taken in a (typically short) constant maximum time known before execution starts. Such systems can use exceptions only if there is tool support for accurately predicting the maximum time to recover from a throw.
See also: [RAII](#Re-raii)
See also: [discussion](#Sd-noexcept)
Before deciding that you cannot afford or don't like exception-based error handling, have a look at the [alternatives](#Re-no-throw-raii); they have their own complexities and problems. Also, as far as possible, measure before making claims about efficiency.
To keep error handling separated from ordinary code.
C++ implementations tend to be optimized based on the assumption that exceptions are rare.
// don't: exception not used for error handling
int find_index(vector<string>& vec, const string& x)
{
try {
for (int i = 0; i < vec.size(); ++i)
if (vec[i] == x) throw i; // found x
} catch (int i) {
return i;
}
return -1; // not found
}
This is more complicated and most likely runs much slower than the obvious alternative.
There is nothing exceptional about finding a value in a vector.
Would need to be heuristic.
Look for exception values leaked
out of catch clauses.
To use an object it must be in a valid state (defined formally or informally by an invariant) and to recover from an error every object not destroyed must be in a valid state.
An [invariant](#Rc-struct) is logical condition for the members of an object that a constructor must establish for the public member functions to assume.
???
Leaving an object without its invariant established is asking for trouble. Not all member functions can be called.
class Vector { // very simplified vector of doubles
// if elem != nullptr then elem points to sz doubles
public:
Vector() : elem{nullptr}, sz{0}{}
Vector(int s) : elem{new double}, sz{s} { /* initialize elements */ }
~Vector() { delete elem; }
double& operator[](int s) { return elem[s]; }
// ...
private:
owner<double*> elem;
int sz;
};
The class invariant - here stated as a comment - is established by the constructors.
new throws if it cannot allocate the required memory.
The operators, notably the subscript operator, relies on the invariant.
See also: [If a constructor cannot construct a valid object, throw an exception](#Rc-throw)
Flag classes with private state without a constructor (public, protected, or private).
Leaks are typically unacceptable. RAII (Resource Acquisition Is Initialization
) is the simplest, most systematic way of preventing leaks.
void f1(int i) // Bad: possibly leak
{
int* p = new int[12];
// ...
if (i < 17) throw Bad {"in f()", i};
// ...
}
We could carefully release the resource before the throw:
void f2(int i) // Clumsy: explicit release
{
int* p = new int[12];
// ...
if (i < 17) {
delete[] p;
throw Bad {"in f()", i};
}
// ...
}
This is verbose. In larger code with multiple possible throws explicit releases become repetitive and error-prone.
void f3(int i) // OK: resource management done by a handle
{
auto p = make_unique<int[]>(12);
// ...
if (i < 17) throw Bad {"in f()", i};
// ...
}
Note that this works even when the throw is implicit because it happened in a called function:
void f4(int i) // OK: resource management done by a handle
{
auto p = make_unique<int[]>(12);
// ...
helper(i); // may throw
// ...
}
Unless you really need pointer semantics, use a local resource object:
void f5(int i) // OK: resource management done by local object
{
vector<int> v(12);
// ...
helper(i); // may throw
// ...
}
If there is no obvious resource handle, cleanup actions can be represented by a [final_action object](#Re-finally)
But what do we do if we are writing a program where exceptions cannot be used? First challenge that assumption; there are many anti-exceptions myths around. We know of only a few good reasons:
Only the first of these reasons is fundamental, so whenever possible, use exceptions to implement RAII, or design your RAII objects to never fail.
When exceptions cannot be used, simulate RAII.
That is, systematically check that objects are valid after construction and still release all resources in the destructor.
One strategy is to add a valid() operation to every resource handle:
void f()
{
vector<string> vs(100); // not std::vector: valid() added
if (!vs.valid()) {
// handle error or exit
}
ifstream fs("foo"); // not std::ifstream: valid() added
if (!fs.valid()) {
// handle error or exit
}
// ...
} // destructors clean up as usual
Obviously, this increases the size of the code, doesn't allow for implicit propagation of exceptions
(valid() checks), and valid() checks can be forgotten.
Prefer to use exceptions.
See also: [Use of noexcept](#Se-noexcept).
???
To avoid interface errors.
See also: [precondition rule](#Ri-pre).
To avoid interface errors.
See also: [postcondition rule](#Ri-post).
noexcept when exiting a function because of a throw is impossible or unacceptableTo make error handling systematic, robust, and efficient.
double compute(double d) noexcept
{
return log(sqrt(d <= 0 ? 1 : d));
}
Here, we know that compute will not throw because it is composed out of operations that don't throw.
By declaring compute to be noexcept, we give the compiler and human readers information that can make it easier for them to understand and manipulate compute.
Many standard library functions are noexcept including all the standard library functions inherited
from the C standard library.
vector<double> munge(const vector<double>& v) noexcept
{
vector<double> v2(v.size());
// ... do something ...
}
The noexcept here states that I am not willing or able to handle the situation where I cannot construct the local vector. That is, I consider memory exhaustion a serious design error (on par with hardware failures) so that I'm willing to crash the program if it happens.
See also: [discussion](#Sd-noexcept).
That would be a leak.
void leak(int x) // don't: may leak
{
auto p = new int{7};
if (x < 0) throw Get_me_out_of_here{}; // may leak *p
// ...
delete p; // we may never get here
}
One way of avoiding such problems is to use resource handles consistently:
void no_leak(int x)
{
auto p = make_unique<int>(7);
if (x < 0) throw Get_me_out_of_here{}; // will delete *p if necessary
// ...
// no need for delete p
}
Another solution (often better) would be to use a local variable to eliminate explicit use of pointers:
void no_leak_simplified(int x)
{
vector<int> v(7);
// ...
}
See also: ???resource rule ???
A user-defined type is unlikely to clash with other people's exceptions.
void my_code()
{
// ...
throw Moonphase_error{};
// ...
}
void your_code()
{
try {
// ...
my_code();
// ...
}
catch(Bufferpool_exhausted) {
// ...
}
}
void my_code() // Don't
{
// ...
throw 7; // 7 means "moon in the 4th quarter"
// ...
}
void your_code() // Don't
{
try {
// ...
my_code();
// ...
}
catch(int i) { // i == 7 means "input buffer too small"
// ...
}
}
The standard-library classes derived from exception should be used only as base classes or for exceptions that require only generic
handling. Like built-in types, their use could clash with other people's use of them.
void my_code() // Don't
{
// ...
throw runtime_error{"moon in the 4th quarter"};
// ...
}
void your_code() // Don't
{
try {
// ...
my_code();
// ...
}
catch(runtime_error) { // runtime_error means "input buffer too small"
// ...
}
}
See also: [Discussion](#Sd-???)
Catch throw and catch of a built-in type. Maybe warn about throw and catch using an standard-library exception type. Obviously, exceptions derived from the std::exception hierarchy is fine.
To prevent slicing.
void f()
try {
// ...
}
catch (exception e) { // don't: may slice
// ...
}
Instead, use:
catch (exception& e) { /* ... */ }
Flag by-value exceptions if their types are part of a hierarchy (could require whole-program analysis to be perfect).
swap must never failWe don't know how to write reliable programs if a destructor, a swap, or a memory deallocation fails; that is, if it exits by an exception or simply doesn't perform its required action.
class Connection {
// ...
public:
~Connection() // Don't: very bad destructor
{
if (cannot_disconnect()) throw I_give_up{information};
// ...
}
};
Many have tried to write reliable code violating this rule for examples, such as a network connection that refuses to close
.
To the best of our knowledge nobody has found a general way of doing this.
Occasionally, for very specific examples, you can get away with setting some state for future cleanup.
For example, we might put a socket that does not want to close on a bad socket
list,
to be examined by a regular sweep of the system state.
Every example we have seen of this is error-prone, specialized, and often buggy.
The standard library assumes that destructors, deallocation functions (e.g., operator delete), and swap do not throw. If they do, basic standard library invariants are broken.
Deallocation functions, including operator delete, must be noexcept. swap functions must be noexcept.
Most destructors are implicitly noexcept by default.
Also, [make move operations noexcept](##Rc-move-noexcept).
Catch destructors, deallocation operations, and swaps that throw.
Catch such operations that are not noexcept.
See also: [discussion](#Sd-never-fail)
Catching an exception in a function that cannot take a meaningful recovery action leads to complexity and waste. Let an exception propagate until it reaches a function that can handle it. Let cleanup actions on the unwinding path be handled by [RAII](#Re-raii).
void f() // bad
{
try {
// ...
}
catch (...) {
// no action
throw; // propagate exception
}
}
too high)
try/catchtry/catch is verbose and non-trivial uses error-prone.
try/catch can be a sign of unsystematic and/or low-level resource management or error handling.
void f(zstring s)
{
Gadget* p;
try {
p = new Gadget(s);
// ...
delete p;
}
catch (Gadget_construction_failure) {
delete p;
throw;
}
}
This code is messy.
There could be a leak from the naked pointer in the try block.
Not all exceptions are handled.
deleting an object that failed to construct is almost certainly a mistake.
Better:
void f2(zstring s)
{
Gadget g {s};
}
finally](#Re-finally)??? hard, needs a heuristic
final_action object to express cleanup if no suitable resource handle is availablefinally is less verbose and harder to get wrong than try/catch.
void f(int n)
{
void* p = malloc(1, n);
auto _ = finally([p] { free(p); });
// ...
}
finally is not as messy as try/catch, but it is still ad-hoc.
Prefer [proper resource management objects](#Re-raii).
Use of finally is a systematic and reasonably clean alternative to the old [goto exit; technique](##Re-no-throw-codes)
for dealing with cleanup where resource management is not systematic.
Heuristic: Detect goto exit;
Even without exceptions, [RAII](#Re-raii) is usually the best and most systematic way of dealing with resources.
Error handling using exceptions is the only complete and systematic way of handling non-local errors in C++. In particular, non-intrusively signaling failure to construct an object requires an exception. Signaling errors in a way that cannot be ignored requires exceptions. If you can't use exceptions, simulate their use as best you can.
A lot of fear of exceptions is misguided. When used for exceptional circumstances in code that is not littered with pointers and complicated control structures, exception handling is almost always affordable (in time and space) and almost always leads to better code. This, of course, assumes a good implementation of the exception handling mechanisms, which is not available on all systems. There are also cases where the problems above do not apply, but exceptions cannot be used for other reasons. Some hard real-time systems are an example: An operation has to be completed within a fixed time with an error or a correct answer. In the absence of appropriate time estimation tools, this is hard to guarantee for exceptions. Such systems (e.g. flight control software) typically also ban the use of dynamic (heap) memory.
So, the primary guideline for error handling is use exceptions and [RAII](#Re-raii).
This section deals with the cases where you either do not have an efficient implementation of exceptions,
or have such a rat's nest of old-style code
(e.g., lots of pointers, ill-defined ownership, and lots of unsystematic error handling based on tests of error codes)
that it is infeasible to introduce simple and systematic exception handling.
Before condemning exceptions or complaining too much about their cost, consider examples of the use of [error codes](#Re-no-throw-codes). Consider the cost and complexity of the use of error codes. If performance is your worry, measure.
Assume you wanted to write
void func(zstring arg)
{
Gadget g {arg};
// ...
}
If the gadget isn't correctly constructed, func exits with an exception.
If we cannot throw an exception, we can simulate this RAII style of resource handling by adding a valid() member function to Gadget:
error_indicator func(zstring arg)
{
Gadget g {arg};
if (!g.valid()) return gadget_construction_error;
// ...
return 0; // zero indicates "good"
}
The problem is of course that the caller now has to remember to test the return value.
See also: [Discussion](#Sd-???).
Possible (only) for specific versions of this idea: e.g., test for systematic test of valid() after resource handle construction
If you can't do a good job at recovering, at least you can get out before too much consequential damage is done.
See also [Simulating RAII](#Re-no-throw-raii).
If you cannot be systematic about error handling, consider crashing
as a response to any error that cannot be handled locally.
That is, if you cannot recover from an error in the context of the function that detected it, call abort(), quick_exit(),
or a similar function that will trigger some sort of system restart.
In systems where you have lots of processes and/or lots of computers, you need to expect and handle fatal crashes anyway,
say from hardware failures.
In such cases, crashing
is simply leaving error handling to the next level of the system.
void f(int n)
{
// ...
p = static_cast<X*>(malloc(n, X));
if (p == nullptr) abort(); // abort if memory is exhausted
// ...
}
Most programs cannot handle memory exhaustion gracefully anyway. This is roughly equivalent to
void f(int n)
{
// ...
p = new X[n]; // throw if memory is exhausted (by default, terminate)
// ...
}
Typically, it is a good idea to log the reason for the crash
before exiting.
Awkward
Systematic use of any error-handling strategy minimizes the chance of forgetting to handle an error.
See also [Simulating RAII](#Re-no-throw-raii).
There are several issues to be addressed:
In general, returning an error indicator implies returning two values: The result and an error indicator.
The error indicator can be part of the object, e.g. an object can have a valid() indicator
or a pair of values can be returned.
Gadget make_gadget(int n)
{
// ...
}
void user()
{
Gadget g = make_gadget(17);
if (!g.valid()) {
// error handling
}
// ...
}
This approach fits with [simulated RAII resource management](#Re-no-throw-raii).
The valid() function could return an error_indicator (e.g. a member of an error_indicator enumeration).
What if we cannot or do not want to modify the Gadget type?
In that case, we must return a pair of values.
For example:
std::pair<Gadget, error_indicator> make_gadget(int n)
{
// ...
}
void user()
{
auto r = make_gadget(17);
if (!r.second) {
// error handling
}
Gadget& g = r.first;
// ...
}
As shown, std::pair is a possible return type.
Some people prefer a specific type.
For example:
Gval make_gadget(int n)
{
// ...
}
void user()
{
auto r = make_gadget(17);
if (!r.err) {
// error handling
}
Gadget& g = r.val;
// ...
}
One reason to prefer a specific return type is to have names for its members, rather than the somewhat cryptic first and second
and to avoid confusion with other uses of std::pair.
In general, you must clean up before an error exit. This can be messy:
std::pair<int, error_indicator> user()
{
Gadget g1 = make_gadget(17);
if (!g1.valid()) {
return {0, g1_error};
}
Gadget g2 = make_gadget(17);
if (!g2.valid()) {
cleanup(g1);
return {0, g2_error};
}
// ...
if (all_foobar(g1, g2)) {
cleanup(g1);
cleanup(g2);
return {0, foobar_error};
// ...
cleanup(g1);
cleanup(g2);
return {res, 0};
}
Simulating RAII can be non-trivial, especially in functions with multiple resources and multiple possible errors. A not uncommon technique is to gather cleanup at the end of the function to avoid repetition:
std::pair<int, error_indicator> user()
{
error_indicator err = 0;
Gadget g1 = make_gadget(17);
if (!g1.valid()) {
err = g1_error;
goto exit;
}
Gadget g2 = make_gadget(17);
if (!g2.valid()) {
err = g2_error;
goto exit;
}
if (all_foobar(g1, g2)) {
err = foobar_error;
goto exit;
}
// ...
exit:
if (g1.valid()) cleanup(g1);
if (g2.valid()) cleanup(g2);
return {res, err};
}
The larger the function, the more tempting this technique becomes.
finally can [ease the pain a bit](#Re-finally).
Also, the larger the program becomes the harder it is to apply an error-indicator-based error handling strategy systematically.
We [prefer exception-based error handling](#Re-throw) and recommend [keeping functions short](#Rf-single).
See also: [Discussion](#Sd-???).
See also: [Returning multiple values](#Rf-out-multi).
Awkward.
errno)Global state is hard to manage and it is easy to forget to check it.
When did you last test the return value of printf()?
See also [Simulating RAII](#Re-no-throw-raii).
???
C-style error handling is based on the global variable errno, so it is essentially impossible to avoid this style completely.
Awkward.
You can't have a race condition on a constant.
It is easier to reason about a program when many of the objects cannot change their values.
Interfaces that promises no change
of objects passed as arguments greatly increase readability.
Constant rule summary:
const](#Rconst-fct)consts](#Rconst-ref)const to define objects with values that do not change after construction](#Rconst-const)constexpr for values that can be computed at compile time](#Rconst-constexpr)Immutable objects are easier to reason about, so make objects non-const only when there is a need to change their value.
Prevents accidental or hard-to-notice change of value.
for (const string& s : c) cout << s << '\n'; // just reading: const
for (string& s : c) cout << s << '\n'; // BAD: just reading
for (string& s : c) cin >> s; // needs to write: non-const
Function arguments are rarely mutated, but also rarely declared const. To avoid confusion and lots of false positives, don't enforce this rule for function arguments.
void f(const char* const p); // pedantic
void g(const int i); // pedantic
Note that function parameter is a local variable so changes to it are local.
constA member function should be marked const unless it changes the object's observable state.
This gives a more precise statement of design intent, better readability, more errors caught by the compiler, and sometimes more optimization opportunities.
class Point {
int x, y;
public:
int getx() { return x; } // BAD, should be const as it doesn't modify the object's state
// ...
};
void f(const Point& pt) {
int x = pt.getx(); // ERROR, doesn't compile because getx was not marked const
}
[Do not cast away const](#Res-casts-const).
const, but that does not perform a non-const operation on any member variable.constsTo avoid a called function unexpectedly changing the value. It's far easier to reason about programs when called functions don't modify state.
void f(char* p); // does f modify *p? (assume it does)
void g(const char* p); // g does not modify *p
It is not inherently bad to pass a pointer or reference to non-const, but that should be done only when the called function is supposed to modify the object.
[Do not cast away const](#Res-casts-const).
constconstconst to define objects with values that do not change after constructionPrevent surprises from unexpectedly changed object values.
void f()
{
int x = 7;
const int y = 9;
for (;;) {
// ...
}
// ...
}
As x is not const, we must assume that it is modified somewhere in the loop.
const variables.constexpr for values that can be computed at compile timeBetter performance, better compile-time checking, guaranteed compile-time evaluation, no possibility of race conditions.
double x = f(2); // possible run-time evaluation
const double y = f(2); // possible run-time evaluation
constexpr double z = f(2); // error unless f(2) can be evaluated at compile time
See F.4.
const definitions with constant expression initializers.Generic programming is programming using types and algorithms parameterized by types, values, and algorithms.
In C++, generic programming is supported by the template language mechanisms.
Arguments to generic functions are characterized by sets of requirements on the argument types and values involved. In C++, these requirements are expressed by compile-time predicates called concepts.
Templates can also be used for meta-programming; that is, programs that compose code at compile time.
A central notion in generic programming is concepts
; that is, requirements on template arguments presented as compile-time predicates.
Concepts
are defined in an ISO Technical specification: concepts.
A draft of a set of standard-library concepts can be found in another ISO TS: ranges
Currently (July 2016), concepts are supported only in GCC 6.1.
Consequently, we comment out uses of concepts in examples; that is, we use them as formalized comments only.
If you use GCC 6.1, you can uncomment them.
Template use rule summary:
Concept use rule summary:
auto for local variables](#Rt-auto)Concept definition rule summary:
conceptswithout meaningful semantics](#Rt-low)
!C<T>) sparingly to express a minor difference](#Rt-not)C1<T> || C2<T>) sparingly to express alternatives](#Rt-or)Template interface rule summary:
using over typedef for defining aliases](#Rt-using)Regular or SemiRegular](#Rt-regular)enable_if](#Rt-concept-def)Template definition rule summary:
{} rather than () within templates to avoid ambiguities](#Rt-cast)Template and hierarchy rule summary:
hierarchies
Variadic template rule summary:
Metaprogramming rule summary:
constexpr functions to compute values at compile time](#Rt-fct)Other template rules summary:
static_assert](#Rt-check-class)Generic programming is programming using types and algorithms parameterized by types, values, and algorithms.
Generality. Re-use. Efficiency. Encourages consistent definition of user types.
Conceptually, the following requirements are wrong because what we want of T is more than just the very low-level concepts of can be incremented
or can be added
:
template<typename T>
// requires Incrementable<T>
T sum1(vector<T>& v, T s)
{
for (auto x : v) s += x;
return s;
}
template<typename T>
// requires Simple_number<T>
T sum2(vector<T>& v, T s)
{
for (auto x : v) s = s + x;
return s;
}
Assuming that Incrementable does not support + and Simple_number does not support +=, we have overconstrained implementers of sum1 and sum2.
And, in this case, missed an opportunity for a generalization.
template<typename T>
// requires Arithmetic<T>
T sum(vector<T>& v, T s)
{
for (auto x : v) s += x;
return s;
}
Assuming that Arithmetic requires both + and +=, we have constrained the user of sum to provide a complete arithmetic type.
That is not a minimal requirement, but it gives the implementer of algorithms much needed freedom and ensures that any Arithmetic type
can be used for a wide variety of algorithms.
For additional generality and reusability, we could also use a more general Container or Range concept instead of committing to only one container, vector.
If we define a template to require exactly the operations required for a single implementation of a single algorithm
(e.g., requiring just += rather than also = and +) and only those, we have overconstrained maintainers.
We aim to minimize requirements on template arguments, but the absolutely minimal requirements of an implementation is rarely a meaningful concept.
Templates can be used to express essentially everything (they are Turing complete), but the aim of generic programming (as expressed using templates) is to efficiently generalize operations/algorithms over a set of types with similar semantic properties.
The requires in the comments are uses of concepts.
Concepts
are defined in an ISO Technical specification: concepts.
Currently (July 2016), concepts are supported only in GCC 6.1.
Consequently, we comment out uses of concepts in examples; that is, we use them as formalized comments only.
If you use GCC 6.1, you can uncomment them.
overly simplerequirements, such as direct use of specific operators without a concept.
overly simpleconcepts themselves; they may simply be building blocks for more useful concepts.
Generality. Minimizing the amount of source code. Interoperability. Re-use.
That's the foundation of the STL. A single find algorithm easily works with any kind of input range:
template<typename Iter, typename Val>
// requires Input_iterator<Iter>
// && Equality_comparable<Value_type<Iter>, Val>
Iter find(Iter b, Iter e, Val v)
{
// ...
}
Don't use a template unless you have a realistic need for more than one template argument type. Don't overabstract.
??? tough, probably needs a human
Containers need an element type, and expressing that as a template argument is general, reusable, and type safe. It also avoids brittle or inefficient workarounds. Convention: That's the way the STL does it.
template<typename T>
// requires Regular<T>
class Vector {
// ...
T* elem; // points to sz Ts
int sz;
};
Vector<double> v(10);
v[7] = 9.9;
class Container {
// ...
void* elem; // points to size elements of some type
int sz;
};
Container c(10, sizeof(double));
((double*) c.elem)[] = 9.9;
This doesn't directly express the intent of the programmer and hides the structure of the program from the type system and optimizer.
Hiding the void* behind macros simply obscures the problems and introduces new opportunities for confusion.
Exceptions: If you need an ABI-stable interface, you might have to provide a base implementation and express the (type-safe) template in terms of that. See [Stable base](#Rt-abi).
void*s and casts outside low-level implementation code???
???
Exceptions: ???
Generic and OO techniques are complementary.
Static helps dynamic: Use static polymorphism to implement dynamically polymorphic interfaces.
class Command {
// pure virtual functions
};
// implementations
template</*...*/>
class ConcreteCommand : public Command {
// implement virtuals
};
Dynamic helps static: Offer a generic, comfortable, statically bound interface, but internally dispatch dynamically, so you offer a uniform object layout.
Examples include type erasure as with std::shared_ptr's deleter (but [don't overuse type erasure](#Rt-erasure)).
In a class template, nonvirtual functions are only instantiated if they're used -- but virtual functions are instantiated every time. This can bloat code size, and may overconstrain a generic type by instantiating functionality that is never needed. Avoid this, even though the standard-library facets made this mistake.
See the reference to more specific rules.
Concepts is a facility for specifying requirements for template arguments. It is an [ISO technical specification](#Ref-conceptsTS), but currently supported only by GCC. Concepts are, however, crucial in the thinking about generic programming and the basis of much work on future C++ libraries (standard and other).
This section assumes concept support
Concept use rule summary:
auto](#Rt-auto)Concept definition rule summary:
conceptswithout meaningful semantics](#Rt-low)
Correctness and readability. The assumed meaning (syntax and semantics) of a template argument is fundamental to the interface of a template. A concept dramatically improves documentation and error handling for the template. Specifying concepts for template arguments is a powerful design tool.
template<typename Iter, typename Val>
// requires Input_iterator<Iter>
// && Equality_comparable<Value_type<Iter>, Val>
Iter find(Iter b, Iter e, Val v)
{
// ...
}
or equivalently and more succinctly:
template<Input_iterator Iter, typename Val>
// requires Equality_comparable<Value_type<Iter>, Val>
Iter find(Iter b, Iter e, Val v)
{
// ...
}
Concepts
are defined in an ISO Technical specification: concepts.
A draft of a set of standard-library concepts can be found in another ISO TS: ranges
Currently (July 2016), concepts are supported only in GCC 6.1.
Consequently, we comment out uses of concepts in examples; that is, we use them as formalized comments only.
If you use GCC 6.1, you can uncomment them:
template<typename Iter, typename Val>
requires Input_iterator<Iter>
&& Equality_comparable<Value_type<Iter>, Val>
Iter find(Iter b, Iter e, Val v)
{
// ...
}
Plain typename (or auto) is the least constraining concept.
It should be used only rarely when nothing more than it's a type
can be assumed.
This is typically only needed when (as part of template metaprogramming code) we manipulate pure expression trees, postponing type checking.
References: TC++PL4, Palo Alto TR, Sutton
Flag template type arguments without concepts
Standard
concepts (as provided by the [GSL](#S-GSL) and the Ranges TS, and hopefully soon the ISO standard itself)
saves us the work of thinking up our own concepts, are better thought out than we can manage to do in a hurry, and improves interoperability.
Unless you are creating a new generic library, most of the concepts you need will already be defined by the standard library.
template<typename T>
// don't define this: Sortable is in the GSL
concept Ordered_container = Sequence<T> && Random_access<Iterator<T>> && Ordered<Value_type<T>>;
void sort(Ordered_container& s);
This Ordered_container is quite plausible, but it is very similar to the Sortable concept in the GSL (and the Range TS).
Is it better? Is it right? Does it accurately reflect the standard's requirements for sort?
It is better and simpler just to use Sortable:
void sort(Sortable& s); // better
The set of standard
concepts is evolving as we approach an ISO standard including concepts.
Designing a useful concept is challenging.
Hard.
unusual/non-standard concepts, templates that use
homebrewconcepts without axioms.
auto for local variablesauto is the weakest concept. Concept names convey more meaning than just auto.
vector<string> v;
auto& x = v.front(); // bad
String& s = v.begin(); // good (String is a GSL concept)
Readability. Direct expression of an idea.
To say `T` is `Sortable`
:
template<typename T> // Correct but verbose: "The parameter is
// requires Sortable<T> // of type T which is the name of a type
void sort(T&); // that is Sortable"
template<Sortable T> // Better (assuming support for concepts): "The parameter is of type T
void sort(T&); // which is Sortable"
void sort(Sortable&); // Best (assuming support for concepts): "The parameter is Sortable"
The shorter versions better match the way we speak. Note that many templates don't need to use the template keyword.
Concepts
are defined in an ISO Technical specification: concepts.
A draft of a set of standard-library concepts can be found in another ISO TS: ranges
Currently (July 2016), concepts are supported only in GCC 6.1.
Consequently, we comment out uses of concepts in examples; that is, we use them as formalized comments only.
If you use a compiler that supports concepts (e.g., GCC 6.1), you can remove the //.
<typename T> and <class T> notation.Defining good concepts is non-trivial.
Concepts are meant to represent fundamental concepts in an application domain (hence the name concepts
).
Similarly throwing together a set of syntactic constraints to be used for a the arguments for a single class or algorithm is not what concepts were designed for
and will not give the full benefits of the mechanism.
Obviously, defining concepts will be most useful for code that can use an implementation (e.g., GCC 6.1), but defining concepts is in itself a useful design technique and help catch conceptual errors and clean up the concepts (sic!) of an implementation.
conceptswithout meaningful semantics
Concepts are meant to express semantic notions, such as a number
, a range
of elements, and totally ordered.
Simple constraints, such as has a `+` operator
and has a `>` operator
cannot be meaningfully specified in isolation
and should be used only as building blocks for meaningful concepts, rather than in user code.
template<typename T>
concept Addable = has_plus<T>; // bad; insufficient
template<Addable N> auto algo(const N& a, const N& b) // use two numbers
{
// ...
return a + b;
}
int x = 7;
int y = 9;
auto z = plus(x, y); // z = 16
string xx = "7";
string yy = "9";
auto zz = plus(xx, yy); // zz = "79"
Maybe the concatenation was expected. More likely, it was an accident. Defining minus equivalently would give dramatically different sets of accepted types.
This Addable violates the mathematical rule that addition is supposed to be commutative: a+b == b+a.
The ability to specify a meaningful semantics is a defining characteristic of a true concept, as opposed to a syntactic constraint.
template<typename T>
// The operators +, -, *, and / for a number are assumed to follow the usual mathematical rules
concept Number = has_plus<T>
&& has_minus<T>
&& has_multiply<T>
&& has_divide<T>;
template<Number N> auto algo(const N& a, const N& b) // use two numbers
{
// ...
return a + b;
}
int x = 7;
int y = 9;
auto z = plus(x, y); // z = 18
string xx = "7";
string yy = "9";
auto zz = plus(xx, yy); // error: string is not a Number
Concepts with multiple operations have far lower chance of accidentally matching a type than a single-operation concept.
concepts when used outside the definition of other concepts.enable_if that appears to simulate single-operation concepts.Ease of comprehension. Improved interoperability. Helps implementers and maintainers.
This is a specific variant of the general rule that [a concept must make semantic sense](#Rt-low).
template<typename T> concept Subtractable = requires(T a, T, b) { a-b; };
This makes no semantic sense.
You need at least + to make - meaningful and useful.
Examples of complete sets are
Arithmetic: +, -, *, /, +=, -=, *=, /=Comparable: <, >, <=, >=, ==, !=This rule applies whether we use direct language support for concepts or not. It is a general design rule that even applies to non-templates:
class Minimal {
// ...
};
bool operator==(const Minimal&, const Minimal&);
bool operator<(const Minimal&, const Minimal&);
Minimal operator+(const Minimal&, const Minimal&);
// no other operators
void f(const Minimal& x, const Minimal& y)
{
if (!(x == y) { /* ... */ } // OK
if (x != y) { /* ... */ } // surprise! error
while (!(x < y)) { /* ... */ } // OK
while (x >= y) { /* ... */ } // surprise! error
x = x + y; // OK
x += y; // surprise! error
}
This is minimal, but surprising and constraining for users. It could even be less efficient.
The rule supports the view that a concept should reflect a (mathematically) coherent set of operations.
class Convenient {
// ...
};
bool operator==(const Convenient&, const Convenient&);
bool operator<(const Convenient&, const Convenient&);
// ... and the other comparison operators ...
Minimal operator+(const Convenient&, const Convenient&);
// .. and the other arithmetic operators ...
void f(const Convenient& x, const Convenient& y)
{
if (!(x == y) { /* ... */ } // OK
if (x != y) { /* ... */ } // OK
while (!(x < y)) { /* ... */ } // OK
while (x >= y) { /* ... */ } // OK
x = x + y; // OK
x += y; // OK
}
It can be a nuisance to define all operators, but not hard. Ideally, that rule should be language supported by giving you comparison operators by default.
oddsubsets of a set of operators, e.g.,
== but not != or + but not -.
Yes, std::string is odd, but it's too late to change that.
A meaningful/useful concept has a semantic meaning. Expressing these semantics in an informal, semi-formal, or formal way makes the concept comprehensible to readers and the effort to express it can catch conceptual errors. Specifying semantics is a powerful design tool.
template<typename T>
// The operators +, -, *, and / for a number are assumed to follow the usual mathematical rules
// axiom(T a, T b) { a + b == b + a; a - a == 0; a * (b + c) == a * b + a * c; /*...*/ }
concept Number = requires(T a, T b) {
{a + b} -> T; // the result of a + b is convertible to T
{a - b} -> T;
{a * b} -> T;
{a / b} -> T;
}
This is an axiom in the mathematical sense: something that may be assumed without proof. In general, axioms are not provable, and when they are the proof is often beyond the capability of a compiler. An axiom may not be general, but the template writer may assume that it holds for all inputs actually used (similar to a precondition).
In this context axioms are Boolean expressions.
See the [Palo Alto TR](#S-references) for examples.
Currently, C++ does not support axioms (even the ISO Concepts TS), so we have to make do with comments for a longish while.
Once language support is available, the // in front of the axiom can be removed
The GSL concepts have well defined semantics; see the Palo Alto TR and the Ranges TS.
Early versions of a new concept
still under development will often just define simple sets of constraints without a well-specified semantics.
Finding good semantics can take effort and time.
An incomplete set of constraints can still be very useful:
// balancer for a generic binary tree
template<typename Node> concept bool Balancer = requires(Node* p) {
add_fixup(p);
touch(p);
detach(p);
}
So a Balancer must supply at least thee operations on a tree Node,
but we are not yet ready to specify detailed semantics because a new kind of balanced tree might require more operations
and the precise general semantics for all nodes is hard to pin down in the early stages of design.
A concept
that is incomplete or without a well-specified semantics can still be useful.
For example, it allows for some checking during initial experimentation.
However, it should not be assumed to be stable.
Each new use case may require such an incomplete concepts to be improved.
axiomin concept definition comments
Otherwise they cannot be distinguished automatically by the compiler.
template<typename I>
concept bool Input_iter = requires(I iter) { ++iter; };
template<typename I>
concept bool Fwd_iter = Input_iter<I> && requires(I iter) { iter++; }
The compiler can determine refinement based on the sets of required operations (here, suffix ++).
This decreases the burden on implementers of these types since
they do not need any special declarations to hook into the concept
.
If two concepts have exactly the same requirements, they are logically equivalent (there is no refinement).
Two concepts requiring the same syntax but having different semantics leads to ambiguity unless the programmer differentiates them.
template<typename I> // iterator providing random access
concept bool RA_iter = ...;
template<typename I> // iterator providing random access to contiguous data
concept bool Contiguous_iter =
RA_iter<I> && is_contiguous<I>::value; // using is_contiguous trait
The programmer (in a library) must define is_contiguous (a trait) appropriately.
Wrapping a tag class into a concept leads to a simpler expression of this idea:
template<typename I> concept Contiguous = is_contiguous<I>::value;
template<typename I>
concept bool Contiguous_iter = RA_iter<I> && Contiguous<I>;
The programmer (in a library) must define is_contiguous (a trait) appropriately.
Traits can be trait classes or type traits. These can be user-defined or standard-library ones. Prefer the standard-library ones.
Clarity. Maintainability. Functions with complementary requirements expressed using negation are brittle.
Initially, people will try to define functions with complementary requirements:
template<typename T>
requires !C<T> // bad
void f();
template<typename T>
requires C<T>
void f();
This is better:
template<typename T> // general template
void f();
template<typename T> // specialization by concept
requires C<T>
void f();
The compiler will choose the unconstrained template only when C<T> is
unsatisfied. If you do not want to (or cannot) define an unconstrained
version of f(), then delete it.
template<typename T>
void f() = delete;
The compiler will select the overload and emit an appropriate error.
Complementary constraints are unfortunately common in enable_if code:
template<typename T>
enable_if<!C<T>, void> // bad
f();
template<typename T>
enable_if<C<T>, void>
f();
Complementary requirements on one requirements is sometimes (wrongly) considered manageable. However, for two or more requirements the number of definitions needs can go up exponentially (2,4,9,16,...):
C1<T> && C2<T>
!C1<T> && C2<T>
C1<T> && !C2<T>
!C1<T> && !C2<T>
Now the opportunities for errors multiply.
C<T> and !C<T> constraintsThe definition is more readable and corresponds directly to what a user has to write. Conversions are taken into account. You don't have to remember the names of all the type traits.
You might be tempted to define a concept Equality like this:
template<typename T> concept Equality = has_equal<T> && has_not_equal<T>;
Obviously, it would be better and easier just to use the standard EqualityComparable,
but - just as an example - if you had to define such a concept, prefer:
template<typename T> concept Equality = requires(T a, T b) {
bool == { a == b }
bool == { a != b }
// axiom { !(a == b) == (a != b) }
// axiom { a = b; => a == b } // => means "implies"
}
as opposed to defining two meaningless concepts has_equal and has_not_equal just as helpers in the definition of Equality.
By meaningless
we mean that we cannot specify the semantics of has_equal in isolation.
???
Over the years, programming with templates have suffered from a weak distinction between the interface of a template and its implementation. Before concepts, that distinction had no direct language support. However, the interface to a template is a critical concept - a contract between a user and an implementer - and should be carefully designed.
Function objects can carry more information through an interface than a plain
pointer to function.
In general, passing function objects gives better performance than passing pointers to functions.
bool greater(double x, double y) { return x > y; }
sort(v, greater); // pointer to function: potentially slow
sort(v, [](double x, double y) { return x > y; }); // function object
sort(v, std::greater<>); // function object
bool greater_than_7(double x) { return x > 7; }
auto x = find_if(v, greater_than_7); // pointer to function: inflexible
auto y = find_if(v, [](double x) { return x > 7; }); // function object: carries the needed data
auto z = find_if(v, Greater_than<double>(7)); // function object: carries the needed data
You can, of course, generalize those functions using auto or (when and where available) concepts. For example:
auto y1 = find_if(v, [](Ordered x) { return x > 7; }); // require an ordered type
auto z1 = find_if(v, [](auto x) { return x > 7; }); // hope that the type has a >
Lambdas generate function objects.
The performance argument depends on compiler and optimizer technology.
Keep interfaces simple and stable.
Consider, a sort instrumented with (oversimplified) simple debug support:
void sort(Sortable& s) // sort sequence s
{
if (debug) cerr << "enter sort( " << s << ")\n";
// ...
if (debug) cerr << "exit sort( " << s << ")\n";
}
Should this be rewritten to:
template<Sortable S>
requires Streamable<S>
void sort(S& s) // sort sequence s
{
if (debug) cerr << "enter sort( " << s << ")\n";
// ...
if (debug) cerr << "exit sort( " << s << ")\n";
}
After all, there is nothing in Sortable that requires iostream support.
On the other hand, there is nothing in the fundamental idea of sorting that says anything about debugging.
If we require every operation used to be listed among the requirements, the interface becomes unstable: Every time we change the debug facilities, the usage data gathering, testing support, error reporting, etc. The definition of the template would need change and every use of the template would have to be recompiled. This is cumbersome, and in some environments infeasible.
Conversely, if we use an operation in the implementation that is not guaranteed by concept checking, we may get a late compile-time error.
By not using concept checking for properties of a template argument that is not considered essential, we delay checking until instantiation time. We consider this a worthwhile tradeoff.
Note that using non-local, non-dependent names (such as debug and cerr) also introduces context dependencies that may lead to mysterious
errors.
It can be hard to decide which properties of a type is essential and which are not.
???
Improved readability. Implementation hiding. Note that template aliases replace many uses of traits to compute a type. They can also be used to wrap a trait.
template<typename T, size_t N>
class Matrix {
// ...
using Iterator = typename std::vector<T>::iterator;
// ...
};
This saves the user of Matrix from having to know that its elements are stored in a vector and also saves the user from repeatedly typing typename std::vector<T>::.
template<typename T>
void user(T& c)
{
// ...
typename container_traits<T>::value_type x; // bad, verbose
// ...
}
template<typename T>
using Value_type = typename container_traits<T>::value_type;
This saves the user of Value_type from having to know the technique used to implement value_types.
template<typename T>
void user2(T& c)
{
// ...
Value_type<T> x;
// ...
}
A simple, common use could be expressed: Wrap traits!
typename as a disambiguator outside using declarations.using over typedef for defining aliasesImproved readability: With using, the new name comes first rather than being embedded somewhere in a declaration.
Generality: using can be used for template aliases, whereas typedefs can't easily be templates.
Uniformity: using is syntactically similar to auto.
typedef int (*PFI)(int); // OK, but convoluted
using PFI2 = int (*)(int); // OK, preferred
template<typename T>
typedef int (*PFT)(T); // error
template<typename T>
using PFT2 = int (*)(T); // OK
typedef. This will give a lot of hits:-(
Writing the template argument types explicitly can be tedious and unnecessarily verbose.
tuple<int, string, double> t1 = {1, "Hamlet", 3.14}; // explicit type
auto t2 = make_tuple(1, "Ophelia"s, 3.14); // better; deduced type
Note the use of the s suffix to ensure that the string is a std::string, rather than a C-style string.
Since you can trivially write a make_T function, so could the compiler. Thus, make_T functions may become redundant in the future.
Sometimes there isn't a good way of getting the template arguments deduced and sometimes, you want to specify the arguments explicitly:
vector<double> v = { 1, 2, 3, 7.9, 15.99 };
list<Record*> lst;
Note that C++17 will make this rule redundant by allowing the template arguments to be deduced directly from constructor arguments: Template parameter deduction for constructors (Rev. 3). For example:
tuple t1 = {1, "Hamlet"s, 3.14}; // deduced: tuple<int, string, double>
Flag uses where an explicitly specialized type exactly matches the types of the arguments used.
Regular or SemiRegularReadability. Preventing surprises and errors. Most uses support that anyway.
class X {
// ...
public:
explicit X(int);
X(const X&); // copy
X operator=(const X&);
X(X&&); // move
X& operator=(X&&);
~X();
// ... no more constructors ...
};
X x {1}; // fine
X y = x; // fine
std::vector<X> v(10); // error: no default constructor
Semiregular requires default constructible.
SemiRegular.An unconstrained template argument is a perfect match for anything so such a template can be preferred over more specific types that require minor conversions. This is particularly annoying/dangerous when ADL is used. Common names make this problem more likely.
namespace Bad {
struct S { int m; };
template<typename T1, typename T2>
bool operator==(T1, T2) { cout << "Bad\n"; return true; }
}
namespace T0 {
bool operator==(int, Bad::S) { cout << "T0\n"; return true; } // compare to int
void test()
{
Bad::S bad{ 1 };
vector<int> v(10);
bool b = 1 == bad;
bool b2 = v.size() == bad;
}
}
This prints T0 and Bad.
Now the == in Bad was designed to cause trouble, but would you have spotted the problem in real code?
The problem is that v.size() returns an unsigned integer so that a conversion is needed to call the local ==;
the == in Bad requires no conversions.
Realistic types, such as the standard library iterators can be made to exhibit similar anti-social tendencies.
If an unconstrained template is defined in the same namespace as a type, that unconstrained template can be found by ADL (as happened in the example). That is, it is highly visible.
This rule should not be necessary, but the committee cannot agree to exclude unconstrained templated from ADL.
Unfortunately this will get many false positives; the standard library violates this widely, by putting many unconstrained templates and types into the single namespace std.
Flag templates defined in a namespace where concrete types are also defined (maybe not feasible until we have concepts).
enable_ifBecause that's the best we can do without direct concept support.
enable_if can be used to conditionally define functions and to select among a set of functions.
enable_if<???>
Beware of [complementary constraints](# T.25).
Faking concept overloading using enable_if sometimes forces us to use that error-prone design technique.
???
Type erasure incurs an extra level of indirection by hiding type information behind a separate compilation boundary.
???
Exceptions: Type erasure is sometimes appropriate, such as for std::function.
???
A template definition (class or function) can contain arbitrary code, so only a comprehensive review of C++ programming techniques would cover this topic. However, this section focuses on what is specific to template implementation. In particular, it focuses on a template definition's dependence on its context.
Eases understanding. Minimizes errors from unexpected dependencies. Eases tool creation.
template<typename C>
void sort(C& c)
{
std::sort(begin(c), end(c)); // necessary and useful dependency
}
template<typename Iter>
Iter algo(Iter first, Iter last) {
for (; first != last; ++first) {
auto x = sqrt(*first); // potentially surprising dependency: which sqrt()?
helper(first, x); // potentially surprising dependency:
// helper is chosen based on first and x
TT var = 7; // potentially surprising dependency: which TT?
}
}
Templates typically appear in header files so their context dependencies are more vulnerable to #include order dependencies than functions in .cpp files.
Having a template operate only on its arguments would be one way of reducing the number of dependencies to a minimum, but that would generally be unmanageable. For example, an algorithm usually uses other algorithms and invoke operations that does not exclusively operate on arguments. And don't get us started on macros! See also [T.69](#Rt-customization)
??? Tricky
A member that does not depend on a template parameter cannot be used except for a specific template argument. This limits use and typically increases code size.
template<typename T, typename A = std::allocator{}>
// requires Regular<T> && Allocator<A>
class List {
public:
struct Link { // does not depend on A
T elem;
T* pre;
T* suc;
};
using iterator = Link*;
iterator first() const { return head; }
// ...
private:
Link* head;
};
List<int> lst1;
List<int, My_allocator> lst2;
???
This looks innocent enough, but ???
template<typename T>
struct Link {
T elem;
T* pre;
T* suc;
};
template<typename T, typename A = std::allocator{}>
// requires Regular<T> && Allocator<A>
class List2 {
public:
using iterator = Link<T>*;
iterator first() const { return head; }
// ...
private:
Link* head;
};
List<int> lst1;
List<int, My_allocator> lst2;
???
Allow the base class members to be used without specifying template arguments and without template instantiation.
template<typename T>
class Foo {
public:
enum { v1, v2 };
// ...
};
???
struct Foo_base {
enum { v1, v2 };
// ...
};
template<typename T>
class Foo : public Foo_base {
public:
// ...
};
A more general version of this rule would be
If a template class member depends on only N template parameters out of M, place it in a base class with only N parameters.
For N == 1, we have a choice of a base class of a class in the surrounding scope as in [T.61](#Rt-scary).
??? What about constants? class statics?
A template defines a general interface. Specialization offers a powerful mechanism for providing alternative implementations of that interface.
??? string specialization (==)
??? representation specialization ?
???
???
This is a simplified version of std::copy (ignoring the possibility of non-contiguous sequences)
struct pod_tag {};
struct non_pod_tag {};
template<class T> struct copy_trait { using tag = non_pod_tag; }; // T is not "plain old data"
template<> struct copy_trait<int> { using tag = pod_tag; }; // int is "plain old data"
template<class Iter>
Out copy_helper(Iter first, Iter last, Iter out, pod_tag)
{
// use memmove
}
template<class Iter>
Out copy_helper(Iter first, Iter last, Iter out, non_pod_tag)
{
// use loop calling copy constructors
}
template<class Itert>
Out copy(Iter first, Iter last, Iter out)
{
return copy_helper(first, last, out, typename copy_trait<Iter>::tag{})
}
void use(vector<int>& vi, vector<int>& vi2, vector<string>& vs, vector<string>& vs2)
{
copy(vi.begin(), vi.end(), vi2.begin()); // uses memmove
copy(vs.begin(), vs.end(), vs2.begin()); // uses a loop calling copy constructors
}
This is a general and powerful technique for compile-time algorithm selection.
When concepts become widely available such alternatives can be distinguished directly:
template<class Iter>
requires Pod<Value_type<iter>>
Out copy_helper(In, first, In last, Out out)
{
// use memmove
}
template<class Iter>
Out copy_helper(In, first, In last, Out out)
{
// use loop calling copy constructors
}
???
???
???
???
{} rather than () within templates to avoid ambiguities() is vulnerable to grammar ambiguities.
template<typename T, typename U>
void f(T t, U u)
{
T v1(x); // is v1 a function of a variable?
T v2 {x}; // variable
auto x = T(u); // construction or cast?
}
f(1, "asdf"); // bad: cast from const char* to int
() initializersThere are three major ways to let calling code customize a template.
template<class T>
// Call a member function
void test1(T t)
{
t.f(); // require T to provide f()
}
template<class T>
void test2(T t)
// Call a nonmember function without qualification
{
f(t); // require f(/*T*/) be available in caller's scope or in T's namespace
}
template<class T>
void test3(T t)
// Invoke a "trait"
{
test_traits<T>::f(t); // require customizing test_traits<>
// to get non-default functions/types
}
A trait is usually a type alias to compute a type,
a constexpr function to compute a value,
or a traditional traits template to be specialized on the user's type.
If you intend to call your own helper function helper(t) with a value t that depends on a template type parameter,
put it in a ::detail namespace and qualify the call as detail::helper(t);.
An unqualified call becomes a customization point where any function helper in the namespace of t's type can be invoked;
this can cause problems like [unintentionally invoking unconstrained function templates](#Rt-unconstrained-adl).
Templates are the backbone of C++'s support for generic programming and class hierarchies the backbone of its support for object-oriented programming. The two language mechanisms can be used effectively in combination, but a few design pitfalls must be avoided.
Templating a class hierarchy that has many functions, especially many virtual functions, can lead to code bloat.
template<typename T>
struct Container { // an interface
virtual T* get(int i);
virtual T* first();
virtual T* next();
virtual void sort();
};
template<typename T>
class Vector : public Container<T> {
public:
// ...
};
vector<int> vi;
vector<string> vs;
It is probably a dumb idea to define a sort as a member function of a container, but it is not unheard of and it makes a good example of what not to do.
Given this, the compiler cannot know if vector<int>::sort() is called, so it must generate code for it.
Similar for vector<string>::sort().
Unless those two functions are called that's code bloat.
Imagine what this would do to a class hierarchy with dozens of member functions and dozens of derived classes with many instantiations.
In many cases you can provide a stable interface by not parameterizing a base;
see [stable base
](#Rt-abi) and [OO and GP](#Rt-generic-oo)
An array of derived classes can implicitly decay
to a pointer to a base class with potential disastrous results.
Assume that Apple and Pear are two kinds of Fruits.
void maul(Fruit* p)
{
*p = Pear{}; // put a Pear into *p
p[1] = Pear{}; // put a Pear into p[2]
}
Apple aa [] = { an_apple, another_apple }; // aa contains Apples (obviously!)
maul(aa);
Apple& a0 = &aa[0]; // a Pear?
Apple& a1 = &aa[1]; // a Pear?
Probably, aa[0] will be a Pear (without the use of a cast!).
If sizeof(Apple) != sizeof(Pear) the access to aa[1] will not be aligned to the proper start of an object in the array.
We have a type violation and possibly (probably) a memory corruption.
Never write such code.
Note that maul() violates the a T* points to an individual object [Rule](#???).
Alternative: Use a proper (templatized) container:
void maul2(Fruit* p)
{
*p = Pear{}; // put a Pear into *p
}
vector<Apple> va = { an_apple, another_apple }; // va contains Apples (obviously!)
maul2(va); // error: cannot convert a vector<Apple> to a Fruit*
maul2(&va[0]); // you asked for it
Apple& a0 = &va[0]; // a Pear?
Note that the assignment in maul2() violated the no-slicing [Rule](#???).
???
???
???
C++ does not support that. If it did, vtbls could not be generated until link time. And in general, implementations must deal with dynamic linking.
class Shape {
// ...
template<class T>
virtual bool intersect(T* p); // error: template cannot be virtual
};
We need a rule because people keep asking about this
Double dispatch, visitors, calculate which function to call
The compiler handles that.
Improve stability of code. Avoid code bloat.
It could be a base class:
struct Link_base { // stable
Link* suc;
Link* pre;
};
template<typename T> // templated wrapper to add type safety
struct Link : Link_base {
T val;
};
struct List_base {
Link_base* first; // first element (if any)
int sz; // number of elements
void add_front(Link_base* p);
// ...
};
template<typename T>
class List : List_base {
public:
void put_front(const T& e) { add_front(new Link<T>{e}); } // implicit cast to Link_base
T& front() { static_cast<Link<T>*>(first).val; } // explicit cast back to Link<T>
// ...
};
List<int> li;
List<string> ls;
Now there is only one copy of the operations linking and unlinking elements of a List.
The Link and List classes do nothing but type manipulation.
Instead of using a separate base
type, another common technique is to specialize for void or void* and have the general template for T be just the safely-encapsulated casts to and from the core void implementation.
Alternative: Use a [PIMPL](#???) implementation.
???
???
Variadic templates is the most general mechanism for that, and is both efficient and type-safe. Don't use C varargs.
??? printf
va_arg in user code.???
??? beware of move-only and reference arguments
???
???
??? forwarding, type checking, references
???
There are more precise ways of specifying a homogeneous sequence, such as an initializer_list.
???
???
Templates provide a general mechanism for compile-time programming.
Metaprogramming is programming where at least one input or one result is a type. Templates offer Turing-complete (modulo memory capacity) duck typing at compile time. The syntax and techniques needed are pretty horrendous.
Template metaprogramming is hard to get right, slows down compilation, and is often very hard to maintain. However, there are real-world examples where template metaprogramming provides better performance that any alternative short of expert-level assembly code. Also, there are real-world examples where template metaprogramming expresses the fundamental ideas better than run-time code. For example, if you really need AST manipulation at compile time (e.g., for optional matrix operation folding) there may be no other way in C++.
???
enable_if
Instead, use concepts. But see [How to emulate concepts if you don't have language support](#Rt-emulate).
??? good
Alternative: If the result is a value, rather than a type, use a [constexpr function](#Rt-fct).
If you feel the need to hide your template metaprogramming in macros, you have probably gone too far.
Until concepts become generally available, we need to emulate them using TMP. Use cases that require concepts (e.g. overloading based on concepts) are among the most common (and simple) uses of TMP.
template<typename Iter>
/*requires*/ enable_if<random_access_iterator<Iter>, void>
advance(Iter p, int n) { p += n; }
template<typename Iter>
/*requires*/ enable_if<forward_iterator<Iter>, void>
advance(Iter p, int n) { assert(n >= 0); while (n--) ++p;}
Such code is much simpler using concepts:
void advance(RandomAccessIterator p, int n) { p += n; }
void advance(ForwardIterator p, int n) { assert(n >= 0); while (n--) ++p;}
???
Template metaprogramming is the only directly supported and half-way principled way of generating types at compile time.
Traits
techniques are mostly replaced by template aliases to compute types and constexpr functions to compute values.
??? big object / small object optimization
???
constexpr functions to compute values at compile timeA function is the most obvious and conventional way of expressing the computation of a value.
Often a constexpr function implies less compile-time overhead than alternatives.
Traits
techniques are mostly replaced by template aliases to compute types and constexpr functions to compute values.
template<typename T>
// requires Number<T>
constexpr T pow(T v, int n) // power/exponential
{
T res = 1;
while (n--) res *= v;
return res;
}
constexpr auto f7 = pow(pi, 7);
constexpr functions.Facilities defined in the standard, such as conditional, enable_if, and tuple, are portable and can be assumed to be known.
???
???
Getting advanced TMP facilities is not easy and using a library makes you part of a (hopefully supportive) community.
Write your own advanced TMP support
only if you really have to.
???
???
Documentation, readability, opportunity for reuse.
struct Rec {
string name;
string addr;
int id; // unique identifier
};
bool same(const Rec& a, const Rec& b)
{
return a.id == b.id;
}
vector<Rec*> find_id(const string& name); // find all records for "name"
auto x = find_if(vr.begin(), vr.end(),
[&](Rec& r) {
if (r.name.size() != n.size()) return false; // name to compare to is in n
for (int i = 0; i < r.name.size(); ++i)
if (tolower(r.name[i]) != tolower(n[i])) return false;
return true;
}
);
There is a useful function lurking here (case insensitive string comparison), as there often is when lambda arguments get large.
bool compare_insensitive(const string& a, const string& b)
{
if (a.size() != b.size()) return false;
for (int i = 0; i < a.size(); ++i) if (tolower(a[i]) != tolower(b[i])) return false;
return true;
}
auto x = find_if(vr.begin(), vr.end(),
[&](Rec& r) { compare_insensitive(r.name, n); }
);
Or maybe (if you prefer to avoid the implicit name binding to n):
auto cmp_to_n = [&n](const string& a) { return compare_insensitive(a, n); };
auto x = find_if(vr.begin(), vr.end(),
[](const Rec& r) { return cmp_to_n(r.name); }
);
whether functions, lambdas, or operators.
for_each and similar control flow algorithms.That makes the code concise and gives better locality than alternatives.
auto earlyUsersEnd = std::remove_if(users.begin(), users.end(),
[](const User &a) { return a.id > 100; });
Naming a lambda can be useful for clarity even if it is used only once.
Improved readability.
???
???
Generality. Reusability. Don't gratuitously commit to details; use the most general facilities available.
Use != instead of < to compare iterators; != works for more objects because it doesn't rely on ordering.
for (auto i = first; i < last; ++i) { // less generic
// ...
}
for (auto i = first; i != last; ++i) { // good; more generic
// ...
}
Of course, range-for is better still where it does what you want.
Use the least-derived class that has the functionality you need.
class Base {
public:
Bar f();
Bar g();
};
class Derived1 : public Base {
public:
Bar h();
};
class Derived2 : public Base {
public:
Bar j();
};
// bad, unless there is a specific reason for limiting to Derived1 objects only
void my_func(Derived1& param)
{
use(param.f());
use(param.g());
}
// good, uses only Base interface so only commit to that
void my_func(Base& param)
{
use(param.f());
use(param.g());
}
< instead of !=.x.size() == 0 when x.empty() or x.is_empty() is available. Emptiness works for more containers than size(), because some containers don't know their size or are conceptually of unbounded size.You can't partially specialize a function template per language rules. You can fully specialize a function template but you almost certainly want to overload instead -- because function template specializations don't participate in overloading, they don't act as you probably wanted. Rarely, you should actually specialize by delegating to a class template that you can specialize properly.
???
Exceptions: If you do have a valid reason to specialize a function template, just write a single function template that delegates to a class template, then specialize the class template (including the ability to write partial specializations).
static_assertIf you intend for a class to match a concept, verifying that early saves users pain.
class X {
X() = delete;
X(const X&) = default;
X(X&&) = default;
X& operator=(const X&) = default;
// ...
};
Somewhere, possibly in an implementation file, let the compiler check the desired properties of X:
static_assert(Default_constructible<X>); // error: X has no default constructor
static_assert(Copyable<X>); // error: we forgot to define X's move constructor
Not feasible.
C and C++ are closely related languages.
They both originate in Classic C
from 1978 and have evolved in ISO committees since then.
Many attempts have been made to keep them compatible, but neither is a subset of the other.
C rule summary:
C++ provides better type checking and more notational support. It provides better support for high-level programming and often generates faster code.
char ch = 7;
void* pv = &ch;
int* pi = pv; // not C++
*pi = 999; // overwrite sizeof(int) bytes near &ch
The rules for implicit casting to and from void* in C are subtle and unenforced.
In particular, this example violates a rule against converting to a type with stricter alignment.
Use a C++ compiler.
That subset can be compiled with both C and C++ compilers, and when compiled as C++ is better type checked than pure C.
int* p1 = malloc(10 * sizeof(int)); // not C++
int* p2 = static_cast<int*>(malloc(10 * sizeof(int))); // not C, C-style C++
int* p3 = new int[10]; // not C
int* p4 = (int*) malloc(10 * sizeof(int)); // both C and C++
Flag if using a build mode that compiles code as C.
C++ is more expressive than C and offers better support for many types of programming.
For example, to use a 3rd party C library or C systems interface, define the low-level interface in the common subset of C and C++ for better type checking. Whenever possible encapsulate the low-level interface in an interface that follows the C++ guidelines (for better abstraction, memory safety, and resource safety) and use that C++ interface in C++ code.
You can call C from C++:
// in C:
double sqrt(double);
// in C++:
extern "C" double sqrt(double);
sqrt(2);
You can call C++ from C:
// in C:
X call_f(struct Y*, int);
// in C++:
extern "C" X call_f(Y* p, int i)
{
return p->f(i); // possibly a virtual function call
}
None needed
Distinguish between declarations (used as interfaces) and definitions (used as implementations). Use header files to represent interfaces and to emphasize logical structure.
Source file rule summary:
.cpp suffix for code files and .h for interface files if your project doesn't already follow another convention](#Rs-file-suffix).h file may not contain object definitions or non-inline function definitions](#Rs-inline).h files for all declarations used in multiple source files](#Rs-declaration-header).h files before other declarations in a file](#Rs-include-order).cpp file must include the .h file(s) that defines its interface](#Rs-consistency)using-directives for transition, for foundation libraries (such as std), or within a local scope](#Rs-using)using-directive in a header file](#Rs-using-directive)#include guards for all .h files](#Rs-guards)[SF.9: Avoid cyclic dependencies among source files](#Rs-cycles)
[SF.20: Use namespaces to express logical structure](#Rs-namespace)
[SF.21: Don't use an unnamed (anonymous) namespace in a header](#Rs-unnamed)
[SF.22: Use an unnamed (anonymous) namespace for all internal/nonexported entities](#Rs-unnamed2)
.cpp suffix for code files and .h for interface files if your project doesn't already follow another conventionIt's a longstanding convention. But consistency is more important, so if your project uses something else, follow that.
This convention reflects a common use pattern:
Headers are more often shared with C to compile as both C++ and C, which typically uses .h,
and it's easier to name all headers .h instead of having different extensions for just those headers that are intended to be shared with C.
On the other hand, implementation files are rarely shared with C and so should typically be distinguished from .c files,
so it's normally best to name all C++ implementation files something else (such as .cpp).
The specific names .h and .cpp are not required (just recommended as a default) and other names are in widespread use.
Examples are .hh, .C, and .cxx. Use such names equivalently.
In this document, we refer to .h and .cpp as a shorthand for header and implementation files,
even though the actual extension may be different.
Your IDE (if you use one) may have strong opinions about suffices.
// foo.h:
extern int a; // a declaration
extern void foo();
// foo.cpp:
int a; // a definition
void foo() { ++a; }
foo.h provides the interface to foo.cpp. Global variables are best avoided.
// foo.h:
int a; // a definition
void foo() { ++a; }
#include<foo.h> twice in a program and you get a linker error for two one-definition-rule violations.
.h and .cpp (and equivalents) follow the rules below..h file may not contain object definitions or non-inline function definitionsIncluding entities subject to the one-definition rule leads to linkage errors.
// file.h:
namespace Foo {
int x = 7;
int xx() { return x+x; }
}
// file1.cpp:
#include<file.h>
// ... more ...
// file2.cpp:
#include<file.h>
// ... more ...
Linking file1.cpp and file2.cpp will give two linker errors.
Alternative formulation: A .h file must contain only:
#includes of other .h files (possibly with include guards)extern declarationsinline function definitionsconstexpr definitionsconst definitionsusing alias definitionsCheck the positive list above.
.h files for all declarations used in multiple source filesMaintainability. Readability.
// bar.cpp:
void bar() { cout << "bar\n"; }
// foo.cpp:
extern void bar();
void foo() { bar(); }
A maintainer of bar cannot find all declarations of bar if its type needs changing.
The user of bar cannot know if the interface used is complete and correct. At best, error messages come (late) from the linker.
.h..h files before other declarations in a fileMinimize context dependencies and increase readability.
#include<vector>
#include<algorithm>
#include<string>
// ... my code here ...
#include<vector>
// ... my code here ...
#include<algorithm>
#include<string>
This applies to both .h and .cpp files.
There is an argument for insulating code from declarations and macros in header files by #including headers after the code we want to protect
(as in the example labeled bad
).
However
implementation namespace) can protect against many context dependencies.
Easy.
.cpp file must include the .h file(s) that defines its interfaceThis enables the compiler to do an early consistency check.
// foo.h:
void foo(int);
int bar(long);
int foobar(int);
// foo.cpp:
void foo(int) { /* ... */ }
int bar(double) { /* ... */ }
double foobar(int);
The errors will not be caught until link time for a program calling bar or foobar.
// foo.h:
void foo(int);
int bar(long);
int foobar(int);
// foo.cpp:
#include<foo.h>
void foo(int) { /* ... */ }
int bar(double) { /* ... */ }
double foobar(int); // error: wrong return type
The return-type error for foobar is now caught immediately when foo.cpp is compiled.
The argument-type error for bar cannot be caught until link time because of the possibility of overloading, but systematic use of .h files increases the likelihood that it is caught earlier by the programmer.
???
using-directives for transition, for foundation libraries (such as std), or within a local scope???
???
???
using-directive in a header fileDoing so takes away an #includer's ability to effectively disambiguate and to use alternatives.
???
???
#include guards for all .h filesTo avoid files being #included several times.
// file foobar.h:
#ifndef FOOBAR_H
#define FOOBAR_H
// ... declarations ...
#endif // FOOBAR_H
Flag .h files without #include guards.
Cycles complicates comprehension and slows down compilation. Complicates conversion to use language-supported modules (when they become available).
Eliminate cycles; don't just break them with #include guards.
// file1.h:
#include "file2.h"
// file2.h:
#include "file3.h"
// file3.h:
#include "file1.h"
Flag all cycles.
namespaces to express logical structure???
???
???
It is almost always a bug to mention an unnamed namespace in a header file.
???
Nothing external can depend on an entity in a nested unnamed namespace.
Consider putting every definition in an implementation source file in an unnamed namespace unless that is defining an external/exported
entity.
An API class and its members can't live in an unnamed namespace; but any helper
class or function that is defined in an implementation source file should be at an unnamed namespace scope.
???
Using only the bare language, every task is tedious (in any language). Using a suitable library any task can be reasonably simple.
The standard library has steadily grown over the years. Its description in the standard is now larger than that of the language features. So, it is likely that this library section of the guidelines will eventually grow in size to equal or exceed all the rest.
<< ??? We need another level of rule numbering ??? >>
C++ Standard library component summary:
Standard-library rule summary:
Save time. Don't re-invent the wheel. Don't replicate the work of others. Benefit from other people's work when they make improvements. Help other people when you make improvements.
More people know the standard library. It is more likely to be stable, well-maintained, and widely available than your own code or most other libraries.
???
Container rule summary:
array or vector instead of a C array](#Rsl-arrays)vector by default unless you have a reason to use a different container](#Rsl-vector)array or vector instead of a C arrayC arrays are less safe, and have no advantages over array and vector.
For a fixed-length array, use std::array, which does not degenerate to a pointer when passed to a function and does know its size.
Also, like a built-in array, a stack-allocated std::array keeps its elements on the stack.
For a variable-length array, use std::vector, which additionally can change its size and handles memory allocation.
int v[SIZE]; // BAD
std::array<int, SIZE> w; // ok
int* v = new int[initial_size]; // BAD, owning raw pointer
delete[] v; // BAD, manual delete
std::vector<int> w(initial_size); // ok
std::array.vector by default unless you have a reason to use a different containervector and array are the only standard containers that offer the fastest general-purpose access (random access, including being vectorization-friendly), the fastest default access pattern (begin-to-end or end-to-begin is prefetcher-friendly), and the lowest space overhead (contiguous layout has zero per-element overhead, which is cache-friendly).
Usually you need to add and remove elements from the container, so use vector by default; if you don't need to modify the container's size, use array.
Even when other containers seem more suited, such a map for O(log N) lookup performance or a list for efficient insertion in the middle, a vector will usually still perform better for containers up to a few KB in size.
string should not be used as a container of individual characters. A string is a textual string; if you want a container of characters, use vector</*char_type*/> or array</*char_type*/> instead.
If you have a good reason to use another container, use that instead. For example:
If vector suits your needs but you don't need the container to be variable size, use array instead.
If you want a dictionary-style lookup container that guarantees O(K) or O(log N) lookups, the container will be larger (more than a few KB) and you perform frequent inserts so that the overhead of maintaining a sorted vector is infeasible, go ahead and use an unordered_map or map instead.
vector whose size never changes after construction (such as because it's const or because no non-const functions are called on it). To fix: Use an array instead.???
???
Iostream rule summary:
endl](#Rio-endl)???
???
endlThe endl manipulator is mostly equivalent to '\n' and "\n";
as most commonly used it simply slows down output by doing redundant flush()s.
This slowdown can be significant compared to printf-style output.
cout << "Hello, World!" << endl; // two output operations and a flush
cout << "Hello, World!\n"; // one output operation and no flush
For cin/cout (and equivalent) interaction, there is no reason to flush; that's done automatically.
For writing to a file, there is rarely a need to flush.
Apart from the (occasionally important) issue of performance,
the choice between '\n' and endl is almost completely aesthetic.
???
???
???
C standard library rule summary:
This section contains ideas about higher-level architectural ideas and libraries.
Architectural rule summary:
???
A library is a collection of declarations and definitions maintained, documented, and shipped together.
A library could be a set of headers (a header only library
) or a set of headers plus a set of object files.
A library can be statically or dynamically linked into a program, or it may be #included
A library can contain cyclic references in the definition of its components. For example:
???
However, a library should not depend on another that depends on it.
This section contains rules and guidelines that are popular somewhere, but that we deliberately don't recommend.
We know full well that there have been times and places where these rules made sense, and we have used them ourselves at times.
However, in the context of the styles of programming we recommend and support with the guidelines, these non-rules
would do harm.
Even today, there can be contexts where the rules make sense.
For example, lack of suitable tool support can make exceptions unsuitable in hard-real-time systems,
but please don't blindly trust common wisdom
(e.g., unsupported statements about efficiency
);
such wisdom
may be based on decades-old information or experienced from languages with very different properties than C++
(e.g., C or Java).
The positive arguments for alternatives to these non-rules are listed in the rules offered as Alternatives
.
Non-rule summary:
return-statement in a function](#Rnr-single-return)goto exit](#Rnr-goto-exit)protected](#Rnr-protected-data)This rule is a legacy of old programming languages that didn't allow initialization of variables and constants after a statement. This leads to longer programs and more errors caused by uninitialized and wrongly initialized variables.
???
The larger the distance between the uninitialized variable and its use, the larger the chance of a bug.
Fortunately, compilers catch many used before set
errors.
return-statement in a functionThe single-return rule can lead to unnecessarily convoluted code and the introduction of extra state variables. In particular, the single-return rule makes it harder to concentrate error checking at the top of a function.
template<class T>
// requires Number<T>
string sign(T x)
{
if (x < 0)
return "negative";
else if (x > 0)
return "positive";
return "zero";
}
to use a single return only we would have to do something like
template<class T>
// requires Number<T>
string sign(T x) // bad
{
string res;
if (x < 0)
res = "negative";
else if (x > 0)
res = "positive";
else
res = "zero";
return res;
}
This is both longer and likely to be less efficient.
The larger and more complicated the function is, the more painful the workarounds get.
Of course many simple functions will naturally have just one return because of their simpler inherent logic.
int index(const char* p)
{
if (p == nullptr) return -1; // error indicator: alternatively "throw nullptr_error{}"
// ... do a lookup to find the index for p
return i;
}
If we applied the rule, we'd get something like
int index2(const char* p)
{
int i;
if (p == nullptr)
i = -1; // error indicator
else {
// ... do a lookup to find the index for p
}
return i;
}
Note that we (deliberately) violated the rule against uninitialized variables because this style commonly leads to that. Also, this style is a temptation to use the [goto exit](#Rnr-goto-exit) non-rule.
return statements (and to throw exceptions).There seem to be three main reasons given for this non-rule:
There is no way we can settle this issue to the satisfaction of everybody. After all, the discussions about exceptions have been going on for 40+ years. Some languages cannot be used without exceptions, but others do not support them. This leads to strong traditions for the use and non-use of exceptions, and to heated debates.
However, we can briefly outline why we consider exceptions the best alternative for general-purpose programming and in the context of these guidelines. Simple arguments for and against are often inconclusive. There are specialized applications where exceptions indeed can be inappropriate (e.g., hard-real time systems without support for reliable estimates of the cost of handling an exception).
Consider the major objections to exceptions in turn
Many, possibly most, problems with exceptions stem from historical needs to interact with messy old code.
The fundamental arguments for the use of exceptions are
Remember
???
Expects and Ensures (until we get language support for contracts)The resulting number of files are hard to manage and can slow down compilation. Individual classes are rarely a good logical unit of maintenance and distribution.
???
Following this rule leads to weaker invariants, more complicated code (having to deal with semi-constructed objects), and errors (when we didn't deal correctly with semi-constructed objects consistently).
???
goto exitgoto is error-prone.
This technique is a pre-exception technique for RAII-like resource and error handling.
void do_something(int n)
{
if (n < 100) goto exit;
// ...
int* p = (int*) malloc(n);
// ...
if (some_ error) goto_exit;
// ...
exit:
free(p);
}
and spot the bug.
finally](#Re-finally).protectedprotected data is a source of errors.
protected data can be manipulated from an unbounded amount of code in various places.
protected data is the class hierarchy equivalent to global data.
???
public or (preferably) private](#Rh-protected)Many coding standards, rules, and guidelines have been written for C++, and especially for specialized uses of C++. Many
stopping programmers from doing unusual thingsas their primary aim
A bad coding standard is worse than no coding standard.
However an appropriate set of guidelines are much better than no standards: Form is liberating.
Why can't we just have a language that allows all we want and disallows all we don't want (a perfect language
)?
Fundamentally, because affordable languages (and their tool chains) also serve people with needs that differ from yours and serve more needs than you have today.
Also, your needs change over time and a general-purpose language is needed to allow you to adapt.
A language that is ideal for today would be overly restrictive tomorrow.
Coding guidelines adapt the use of a language to specific needs. Thus, there cannot be a single coding style for everybody. We expect different organizations to provide additions, typically with more restrictions and firmer style rules.
Reference sections:
modern C++](#SS-vid)
if the program fails somebody dies). For example, no free store allocation or deallocation may occur after the plane takes off (no memory overflow and no fragmentation allowed). No exception may be used (because there was no available tool for guaranteeing that an exception would be handled within a fixed short time). Libraries used have to have been approved for mission critical applications. Any similarities to this set of guidelines are unsurprising because Bjarne Stroustrup was an author of JSF++. Recommended, but note its very specific focus.
modern C++
ConceptsTR.
Thanks to the many people who contributed rules, suggestions, supporting information, references, etc.:
and see the contributor list on the github.
A profile
is a set of deterministic and portably enforceable subset rules (i.e., restrictions) that are designed to achieve a specific guarantee. Deterministic
means they require only local analysis and could be implemented in a compiler (though they don't need to be). Portably enforceable
means they are like language rules, so programmers can count on enforcement tools giving the same answer for the same code.
Code written to be warning-free using such a language profile is considered to conform to the profile. Conforming code is considered to be safe by construction with regard to the safety properties targeted by that profile. Conforming code will not be the root cause of errors for that property, although such errors may be introduced into a program by other code, libraries or the external environment. A profile may also introduce additional library types to ease conformance and encourage correct code.
Profiles summary:
In the future, we expect to define many more profiles and add more checks to existing profiles. Candidates include:
const violationsTo suppress enforcement of a profile check, place a suppress annotation on a language contract. For example:
[[suppress(bounds)]] char* raw_find(char* p, int n, char x) // find x in p[0]..p[n-1]
{
// ...
}
Now raw_find() can scramble memory to its heart's content.
Obviously, suppression should be very rare.
This profile makes it easier to construct code that uses types correctly and avoids inadvertent type punning. It does so by focusing on removing the primary sources of type violations, including unsafe uses of casts and unions.
For the purposes of this section,
type-safety is defined to be the property that a variable is not used in a way that doesn't obey the rules for the type of its definition.
Memory accessed as a type T should not be valid memory that actually contains an object of an unrelated type U.
Note that the safety is intended to be complete when combined also with [Bounds safety](#SS-bounds) and [Lifetime safety](#SS-lifetime).
An implementation of this profile shall recognize the following patterns in source code as non-conforming and issue a diagnostic.
Type safety profile summary:
reinterpret_cast](#Pro-type-reinterpretcast)static_cast downcasts. Use dynamic_cast instead](#Pro-type-downcast)const_cast to cast away const (i.e., at all)](#Pro-type-constcast)(T)expression casts that would perform a static_cast downcast, const_cast, or reinterpret_cast](#Pro-type-cstylecast)reinterpret_cast.Use of these casts can violate type safety and cause the program to access a variable that is actually of type X to be accessed as if it were of an unrelated type Z.
std::string s = "hello world";
double* p = reinterpret_cast<double*>(&s); // BAD
Issue a diagnostic for any use of reinterpret_cast. To fix: Consider using a variant instead.
static_cast downcasts. Use dynamic_cast instead.Use of these casts can violate type safety and cause the program to access a variable that is actually of type X to be accessed as if it were of an unrelated type Z.
class Base { public: virtual ~Base() = 0; };
class Derived1 : public Base { };
class Derived2 : public Base {
std::string s;
public:
std::string get_s() { return s; }
};
Derived1 d1;
Base* p1 = &d1; // ok, implicit conversion to pointer to Base is fine
// BAD, tries to treat d1 as a Derived2, which it is not
Derived2* p2 = static_cast<Derived2*>(p1);
// tries to access d1's nonexistent string member, instead sees arbitrary bytes near d1
cout << p2->get_s();
struct Foo { int a, b; };
struct Foobar : Foo { int bar; };
void use(int i, Foo& x)
{
if (0 < i) {
Foobar& x1 = dynamic_cast<Foobar&>(x); // error: Foo is not polymorphic
Foobar& x2 = static_cast<Foobar&>(x); // bad
// ...
}
// ...
}
// ...
use(99, *new Foo{1, 2}); // not a Foobar
If a class hierarchy isn't polymorphic, avoid casting. It is entirely unsafe. Look for a better design. See also [C.146](#Rh-dynamic_cast).
Issue a diagnostic for any use of static_cast to downcast, meaning to cast from a pointer or reference to X to a pointer or reference to a type that is not X or an accessible base of X. To fix: If this is a downcast or cross-cast then use a dynamic_cast instead, otherwise consider using a variant instead.
const_cast to cast away const (i.e., at all).Casting away const is a lie. If the variable is actually declared const, it's a lie punishable by undefined behavior.
void f(const int& i)
{
const_cast<int&>(i) = 42; // BAD
}
static int i = 0;
static const int j = 0;
f(i); // silent side effect
f(j); // undefined behavior
Sometimes you may be tempted to resort to const_cast to avoid code duplication, such as when two accessor functions that differ only in const-ness have similar implementations. For example:
class Bar;
class Foo {
public:
// BAD, duplicates logic
Bar& get_bar() {
/* complex logic around getting a non-const reference to my_bar */
}
const Bar& get_bar() const {
/* same complex logic around getting a const reference to my_bar */
}
private:
Bar my_bar;
};
Instead, prefer to share implementations. Normally, you can just have the non-const function call the const function. However, when there is complex logic this can lead to the following pattern that still resorts to a const_cast:
class Foo {
public:
// not great, non-const calls const version but resorts to const_cast
Bar& get_bar() {
return const_cast<Bar&>(static_cast<const Foo&>(*this).get_bar());
}
const Bar& get_bar() const {
/* the complex logic around getting a const reference to my_bar */
}
private:
Bar my_bar;
};
Although this pattern is safe when applied correctly, because the caller must have had a non-const object to begin with, it's not ideal because the safety is hard to enforce automatically as a checker rule.
Instead, prefer to put the common code in a common helper function -- and make it a template so that it deduces const. This doesn't use any const_cast at all:
class Foo {
public: // good
Bar& get_bar() { return get_bar_impl(*this); }
const Bar& get_bar() const { return get_bar_impl(*this); }
private:
Bar my_bar;
template<class T> // good, deduces whether T is const or non-const
static auto get_bar_impl(T& t) -> decltype(t.get_bar())
{ /* the complex logic around getting a possibly-const reference to my_bar */ }
};
You may need to cast away const when calling const-incorrect functions. Prefer to wrap such functions in inline const-correct wrappers to encapsulate the cast in one place.
Issue a diagnostic for any use of const_cast. To fix: Either don't use the variable in a non-const way, or don't make it const.
(T)expression casts that would perform a static_cast downcast, const_cast, or reinterpret_cast.Use of these casts can violate type safety and cause the program to access a variable that is actually of type X to be accessed as if it were of an unrelated type Z.
Note that a C-style (T)expression cast means to perform the first of the following that is possible: a const_cast, a static_cast, a static_cast followed by a const_cast, a reinterpret_cast, or a reinterpret_cast followed by a const_cast. This rule bans (T)expression only when used to perform an unsafe cast.
std::string s = "hello world";
double* p0 = (double*)(&s); // BAD
class Base { public: virtual ~Base() = 0; };
class Derived1 : public Base { };
class Derived2 : public Base {
std::string s;
public:
std::string get_s() { return s; }
};
Derived1 d1;
Base* p1 = &d1; // ok, implicit conversion to pointer to Base is fine
// BAD, tries to treat d1 as a Derived2, which it is not
Derived2* p2 = (Derived2*)(p1);
// tries to access d1's nonexistent string member, instead sees arbitrary bytes near d1
cout << p2->get_s();
void f(const int& i) {
(int&)(i) = 42; // BAD
}
static int i = 0;
static const int j = 0;
f(i); // silent side effect
f(j); // undefined behavior
Issue a diagnostic for any use of a C-style (T)expression cast that would invoke a static_cast downcast, const_cast, or reinterpret_cast. To fix: Use a dynamic_cast, const-correct declaration, or variant, respectively.
[ES.20: Always initialize an object](#Res-always) is required.
Before a variable has been initialized, it does not contain a deterministic valid value of its type. It could contain any arbitrary bit pattern, which could be different on each call.
struct X { int i; };
X x;
use(x); // BAD, x has not been initialized
X x2{}; // GOOD
use(x2);
() or {} to initialize its members. To fix: Add () or {}.variant instead.Reading from a union member assumes that member was the last one written, and writing to a union member assumes another member with a nontrivial destructor had its destructor called. This is fragile because it cannot generally be enforced to be safe in the language and so relies on programmer discipline to get it right.
union U { int i; double d; };
U u;
u.i = 42;
use(u.d); // BAD, undefined
variant<int, double> u;
u = 42; // u now contains int
use(u.get<int>()); // ok
use(u.get<double>()); // throws ??? update this when standardization finalizes the variant design
Note that just copying a union is not type-unsafe, so safe code can pass a union from one piece of unsafe code to another.
variant instead.Reading from a vararg assumes that the correct type was actually passed. Passing to varargs assumes the correct type will be read. This is fragile because it cannot generally be enforced to be safe in the language and so relies on programmer discipline to get it right.
int sum(...) {
// ...
while (/*...*/)
result += va_arg(list, int); // BAD, assumes it will be passed ints
// ...
}
sum(3, 2); // ok
sum(3.14159, 2.71828); // BAD, undefined
template<class ...Args>
auto sum(Args... args) { // GOOD, and much more flexible
return (... + args); // note: C++17 "fold expression"
}
sum(3, 2); // ok: 5
sum(3.14159, 2.71828); // ok: ~5.85987
Note: Declaring a ... parameter is sometimes useful for techniques that don't involve actual argument passing, notably to declare take-anything
functions so as to disable everything else
in an overload set or express a catchall case in a template metaprogram.
va_list, va_start, or va_arg. To fix: Use a variadic template parameter list instead.[[suppress(types)]].This profile makes it easier to construct code that operates within the bounds of allocated blocks of memory. It does so by focusing on removing the primary sources of bounds violations: pointer arithmetic and array indexing. One of the core features of this profile is to restrict pointers to only refer to single objects, not arrays.
For the purposes of this document, bounds-safety is defined to be the property that a program does not use a variable to access memory outside of the range that was allocated and assigned to that variable. (Note that the safety is intended to be complete when combined also with [Type safety](#SS-type) and [Lifetime safety](#SS-lifetime), which cover other unsafe operations that allow bounds violations, such as type-unsafe casts that 'widen' pointers.)
The following are under consideration but not yet in the rules below, and may be better in other profiles:
An implementation of this profile shall recognize the following patterns in source code as non-conforming and issue a diagnostic.
span instead.Pointers should only refer to single objects, and pointer arithmetic is fragile and easy to get wrong. span is a bounds-checked, safe type for accessing arrays of data.
void f(int* p, int count)
{
if (count < 2) return;
int* q = p + 1; // BAD
ptrdiff_t d;
int n;
d = (p - &n); // OK
d = (q - p); // OK
int n = *p++; // BAD
if (count < 6) return;
p[4] = 1; // BAD
p[count - 1] = 2; // BAD
use(&p[0], 3); // BAD
}
void f(span<int> a) // BETTER: use span in the function declaration
{
if (a.length() < 2) return;
int n = *a++; // OK
span<int> q = a + 1; // OK
if (a.length() < 6) return;
a[4] = 1; // OK
a[count - 1] = 2; // OK
use(a.data(), 3); // OK
}
Issue a diagnostic for any arithmetic operation on an expression of pointer type that results in a value of pointer type.
Dynamic accesses into arrays are difficult for both tools and humans to validate as safe. span is a bounds-checked, safe type for accessing arrays of data. at() is another alternative that ensures single accesses are bounds-checked. If iterators are needed to access an array, use the iterators from a span constructed over the array.
void f(array<int, 10> a, int pos)
{
a[pos / 2] = 1; // BAD
a[pos - 1] = 2; // BAD
a[-1] = 3; // BAD -- no replacement, just don't do this
a[10] = 4; // BAD -- no replacement, just don't do this
}
// ALTERNATIVE A: Use a span
// A1: Change parameter type to use span
void f1(span<int, 10> a, int pos)
{
a[pos / 2] = 1; // OK
a[pos - 1] = 2; // OK
}
// A2: Add local span and use that
void f2(array<int, 10> arr, int pos)
{
span<int> a = {arr, pos}
a[pos / 2] = 1; // OK
a[pos - 1] = 2; // OK
}
// ALTERNATIVE B: Use at() for access
void f3(array<int, 10> a, int pos)
{
at(a, pos / 2) = 1; // OK
at(a, pos - 1) = 2; // OK
}
void f()
{
int arr[COUNT];
for (int i = 0; i < COUNT; ++i)
arr[i] = i; // BAD, cannot use non-constant indexer
}
// ALTERNATIVE A: Use a span
void f1()
{
int arr[COUNT];
span<int> av = arr;
for (int i = 0; i < COUNT; ++i)
av[i] = i;
}
// ALTERNATIVE B: Use at() for access
void f2()
{
int arr[COUNT];
for (int i = 0; i < COUNT; ++i)
at(arr, i) = i;
}
Issue a diagnostic for any indexing expression on an expression or variable of array type (either static array or std::array) where the indexer is not a compile-time constant expression.
Issue a diagnostic for any indexing expression on an expression or variable of array type (either static array or std::array) where the indexer is not a value between 0 or and the upper bound of the array.
Rewrite support: Tooling can offer rewrites of array accesses that involve dynamic index expressions to use at() instead:
static int a[10];
void f(int i, int j)
{
a[i + j] = 12; // BAD, could be rewritten as ...
at(a, i + j) = 12; // OK -- bounds-checked
}
Pointers should not be used as arrays. span is a bounds-checked, safe alternative to using pointers to access arrays.
void g(int* p, size_t length);
void f()
{
int a[5];
g(a, 5); // BAD
g(&a[0], 1); // OK
}
void g(int* p, size_t length);
void g1(span<int> av); // BETTER: get g() changed.
void f()
{
int a[5];
span<int> av = a;
g(av.data(), av.length()); // OK, if you have no choice
g1(a); // OK -- no decay here, instead use implicit span ctor
}
Issue a diagnostic for any expression that would rely on implicit conversion of an array type to a pointer type.
These functions all have bounds-safe overloads that take span. Standard types such as vector can be modified to perform bounds-checks under the bounds profile (in a compatible way, such as by adding contracts), or used with at().
void f()
{
array<int, 10> a, b;
memset(a.data(), 0, 10); // BAD, and contains a length error (length = 10 * sizeof(int))
memcmp(a.data(), b.data(), 10); // BAD, and contains a length error (length = 10 * sizeof(int))
}
Also, std::array<>::fill() or std::fill() or even an empty initializer are better candidate than memset().
void f()
{
array<int, 10> a, b, c{}; // c is initialized to zero
a.fill(0);
fill(b.begin(), b.end(), 0); // std::fill()
fill(b, 0); // std::fill() + Ranges TS
if ( a == b ) {
// ...
}
}
If code is using an unmodified standard library, then there are still workarounds that enable use of std::array and std::vector in a bounds-safe manner. Code can call the .at() member function on each class, which will result in an std::out_of_range exception being thrown. Alternatively, code can call the at() free function, which will result in fail-fast (or a customized action) on a bounds violation.
void f(std::vector<int>& v, std::array<int, 12> a, int i)
{
v[0] = a[0]; // BAD
v.at(0) = a[0]; // OK (alternative 1)
at(v, 0) = a[0]; // OK (alternative 2)
v.at(0) = a[i]; // BAD
v.at(0) = a.at(i); // OK (alternative 1)
v.at(0) = at(a, i); // OK (alternative 2)
}
TODO Notes:
memcmp and shipping them in the GSL.vector that are not fully bounds-checked, the goal is for these features to be bounds-checked when called from code with the bounds profile on, and unchecked when called from legacy code, possibly using contracts (concurrently being proposed by several WG21 members).???
The GSL is a small library of facilities designed to support this set of guidelines. Without these facilities, the guidelines would have to be far more restrictive on language details.
The Core Guidelines support library is defined in namespace gsl and the names may be aliases for standard library or other well-known library names. Using the (compile-time) indirection through the gsl namespace allows for experimentation and for local variants of the support facilities.
The GSL is header only, and can be found at GSL: Guideline support library.
The support library facilities are designed to be extremely lightweight (zero-overhead) so that they impose no overhead compared to using conventional alternatives.
Where desirable, they can be instrumented
with additional functionality (e.g., checks) for tasks such as debugging.
These Guidelines assume a variant type, but this is not currently in GSL.
Eventually, use the one voted into C++17.
Summary of GSL components:
We plan for a ISO C++ standard style
semi-formal specification of the GSL.
We rely on the ISO C++ standard library and hope for parts of the GSL to be absorbed into the standard library.
These types allow the user to distinguish between owning and non-owning pointers and between pointers to a single object and pointers to the first element of a sequence.
These views
are never owners.
References are never owners.
The names are mostly ISO standard-library style (lower case and underscore):
T* // The T* is not an owner, may be null; assumed to be pointing to a single element.T& // The T& is not an owner and can never be a null reference; references are always bound to objects.
The raw-pointer
notation (e.g. int*) is assumed to have its most common meaning; that is, a pointer points to an object, but does not own it.
Owners should be converted to resource handles (e.g., unique_ptr or vector<T>) or marked owner<T*>.
owner<T*> // a T* that owns the object pointed/referred to; may be nullptr.owner<T&> // a T& that owns the object pointed/referred to.owner is used to mark owning pointers in code that cannot be upgraded to use proper resource handles.
Reasons for that include:
An owner<T> differs from a resource handle for a T by still requiring an explicit delete.
An owner<T> is assumed to refer to an object on the free store (heap).
If something is not supposed to be nullptr, say so:
not_null<T> // T is usually a pointer type (e.g., not_null<int*> and not_null<owner<Foo*>>) that may not be nullptr.
T can be any type for which ==nullptr is meaningful.
span<T> // [p:p+n), constructor from {p, q} and {p, n}; T is the pointer type
span_p<T> // {p, predicate} [p:q) where q is the first element for which predicate(*p) is true
string_span // span<char>
cstring_span // span<const char>
A span<T> refers to zero or more mutable Ts unless T is a const type.
Pointer arithmetic
is best done within spans.
A char* that points to more than one char but is not a C-style string (e.g., a pointer into an input buffer) should be represented by a span.
zstring // a char* supposed to be a C-style string; that is, a zero-terminated sequence of char or nullptrczstring // a const char* supposed to be a C-style string; that is, a zero-terminated sequence of const char or nullptrLogically, those last two aliases are not needed, but we are not always logical, and they make the distinction between a pointer to one char and a pointer to a C-style string explicit.
A sequence of characters that is not assumed to be zero-terminated should be a char*, rather than a zstring.
French accent optional.
Use not_null<zstring> for C-style strings that cannot be nullptr. ??? Do we need a name for not_null<zstring>? or is its ugliness a feature?
unique_ptr<T> // unique ownership: std::unique_ptr<T>shared_ptr<T> // shared ownership: std::shared_ptr<T> (a counted pointer)stack_array<T> // A stack-allocated array. The number of elements are determined at construction and fixed thereafter. The elements are mutable unless T is a const type.dyn_array<T> // ??? needed ??? A heap-allocated array. The number of elements are determined at construction and fixed thereafter.
The elements are mutable unless T is a const type. Basically a span that allocates and owns its elements.Expects // precondition assertion. Currently placed in function bodies. Later, should be moved to declarations.
// Expects(p) terminates the program unless p == true
// Expect in under control of some options (enforcement, error message, alternatives to terminate)Ensures // postcondition assertion. Currently placed in function bodies. Later, should be moved to declarations.These assertions is currently macros (yuck!) and must appear in function definitions (only)
pending standard commission decisions on contracts and assertion syntax.
See the contract proposal; using the attribute syntax,
for example, Expects(p!=nullptr) will become [[expects: p!=nullptr]].
finally // finally(f) makes a final_action{f} with a destructor that invokes fnarrow_cast // narrow_cast<T>(x) is static_cast<T>(x)narrow // narrow<T>(x) is static_cast<T>(x) if static_cast<T>(x) == x or it throws narrowing_error[[implicit]] // Markerto put on single-argument constructors to explicitly make them non-explicit.
move_owner // p = move_owner(q) means p = q but ???These concepts (type predicates) are borrowed from Andrew Sutton's Origin library, the Range proposal, and the ISO WG21 Palo Alto TR. They are likely to be very similar to what will become part of the ISO C++ standard. The notation is that of the ISO WG21 Concepts TS. Most of the concepts below are defined in the Ranges TS.
RangeString // ???Number // ???SortablePointer // A type with *, ->, ==, and default construction (default construction is assumed to set the singular nullvalue); see [smart pointers](#SS-gsl-smartptrconcepts)
Unique_ptr // A type that matches Pointer, has move (not copy), and matches the Lifetime profile criteria for a unique owner type; see [smart pointers](#SS-gsl-smartptrconcepts)Shared_ptr // A type that matches Pointer, has copy, and matches the Lifetime profile criteria for a shared owner type; see [smart pointers](#SS-gsl-smartptrconcepts)EqualityComparable // ???Must we suffer CaMelcAse???ConvertibleCommonBooleanIntegralSignedIntegralSemiRegular // ??? Copyable?RegularTotallyOrderedFunctionRegularFunctionPredicateRelationDescribed in Lifetimes paper.
Consistent naming and layout are helpful.
If for no other reason because it minimizes my style is better than your style
arguments.
However, there are many, many, different styles around and people are passionate about them (pro and con).
Also, most real-world projects includes code from many sources, so standardizing on a single style for all code is often impossible.
We present a set of rules that you might use if you have no better ideas, but the real aim is consistency, rather than any particular rule set.
IDEs and tools can help (as well as hinder).
Naming and layout rules:
ALL_CAPS for macro names only](#Rl-all-caps)void as an argument type](#Rl-void)const notation](#Rl-const)Most of these rules are aesthetic and programmers hold strong opinions. IDEs also tend to have defaults and a range of alternatives. These rules are suggested defaults to follow unless you have reasons not to.
We have had comments to the effect that naming and layout are so personal and/or arbitrary that we should not try to legislate
them.
We are not legislating
(see the previous paragraph).
However, we have had many requests for a set of naming and layout conventions to use when there are no external constraints.
More specific and detailed rules are easier to enforce.
These rules bear a strong resemblance to the recommendations in the PPP Style Guide written in support of Stroustrup's Programming: Principles and Practice using C++.
Compilers do not read comments. Comments are less precise than code. Comments are not updated as consistently as code.
auto x = m * v1 + vv; // multiply m with v1 and add the result to vv
Build an AI program that interprets colloquial English text and see if what is said could be better expressed in C++.
Code says what is done, not what is supposed to be done. Often intent can be stated more clearly and concisely than the implementation.
void stable_sort(Sortable& c)
// sort c in the order determined by <, keep equal elements (as defined by ==) in
// their original relative order
{
// ... quite a few lines of non-trivial code ...
}
If the comment and the code disagrees, both are likely to be wrong.
Verbosity slows down understanding and makes the code harder to read by spreading it around in the source file.
Use intelligible English.
I may be fluent in Danish, but most programmers are not; the maintainers of my code may not be.
Avoid SMS lingo and watch your grammar, punctuation, and capitalization.
Aim for professionalism, not cool.
not possible.
Readability. Avoidance of silly mistakes.
int i;
for (i = 0; i < max; ++i); // bug waiting to happen
if (i == j)
return i;
Always indenting the statement after if (...), for (...), and while (...) is usually a good idea:
if (i < 0) error("negative argument");
if (i < 0)
error("negative argument");
Use a tool.
If names reflect types rather than functionality, it becomes hard to change the types used to provide that functionality. Also, if the type of a variable is changed, code using it will have to be modified. Minimize unintentional conversions.
void print_int(int i);
void print_string(const char*);
print_int(1); // OK
print_int(x); // conversion to int if x is a double
Names with types encoded are either verbose or cryptic.
printS // print a std::string
prints // print a C-style string
printi // print an int
PS. Hungarian notation is evil (at least in a strongly statically-typed language).
Some styles distinguishes members from local variable, and/or from global variable.
struct S {
int m_;
S(int m) :m_{abs(m)} { }
};
This is not evil.
Like C++, some styles distinguishes types from non-types. For example, by capitalizing type names, but not the names of functions and variables.
typename<typename T>
class Hash_tbl { // maps string to T
// ...
};
Hash_tbl<int> index;
This is not evil.
Rationale: The larger the scope the greater the chance of confusion and of an unintended name clash.
double sqrt(double x); // return the square root of x; x must be non-negative
int length(const char* p); // return the number of characters in a zero-terminated C-style string
int length_of_string(const char zero_terminated_array_of_char[]) // bad: verbose
int g; // bad: global variable with a cryptic name
int open; // bad: global variable with a short, popular name
The use of p for pointer and x for a floating-point variable is conventional and non-confusing in a restricted scope.
???
Rationale: Consistence in naming and naming style increases readability.
There are many styles and when you use multiple libraries, you can't follow all their different conventions.
Choose a house style
, but leave imported
libraries with their original style.
ISO Standard, use lower case only and digits, separate words with underscores:
intvectormy_mapAvoid double underscores __.
Stroustrup: ISO Standard, but with upper case used for your own types and concepts:
intvectorMy_mapCamelCase: capitalize each word in a multi-word identifier:
intvectorMyMapmyMapSome conventions capitalize the first letter, some don't.
Try to be consistent in your use of acronyms and lengths of identifiers:
int mtbf {12};
int mean_time_between_failures {12}; // make up your mind
Would be possible except for the use of libraries with varying conventions.
ALL_CAPS for macro names onlyTo avoid confusing macros with names that obey scope and type rules.
void f()
{
const int SIZE{1000}; // Bad, use 'size' instead
int v[SIZE];
}
This rule applies to non-macro symbolic constants:
enum bad { BAD, WORSE, HORRIBLE }; // BAD
ALL_CAPS non-macro namesThe use of underscores to separate parts of a name is the original C and C++ style and used in the C++ standard library. If you prefer CamelCase, you have to choose among different flavors of camelCase.
This rule is a default to use only if you have a choice. Often, you don't have a choice and must follow an established style for [consistency](#Rl-name). The need for consistency beats personal taste.
Stroustrup: ISO Standard, but with upper case used for your own types and concepts:
intvectorMy_mapImpossible.
Too much space makes the text larger and distracts.
#include < map >
int main(int argc, char * argv [ ])
{
// ...
}
#include<map>
int main(int argc, char* argv[])
{
// ...
}
Some IDEs have their own opinions and add distracting space.
We value well-placed whitespace as a significant help for readability. Just don't overdo it.
A conventional order of members improves readability.
When declaring a class use the following order
using)Use the public before protected before private order.
Private types and functions can be placed with private data.
Avoid multiple blocks of declarations of one access (e.g., public) dispersed among blocks of declarations with different access (e.g. private).
class X {
public:
// interface
protected:
// unchecked function for use by derived class implementations
private:
// implementation details
};
The use of macros to declare groups of members often violates any ordering rules. However, macros obscures what is being expressed anyway.
Flag departures from the suggested order. There will be a lot of old code that doesn't follow this rule.
This is the original C and C++ layout. It preserves vertical space well. It distinguishes different language constructs (such as functions and classes) well.
In the context of C++, this style is often called Stroustrup
.
struct Cable {
int x;
// ...
};
double foo(int x)
{
if (0 < x) {
// ...
}
switch (x) {
case 0:
// ...
break;
case amazing:
// ...
break;
default:
// ...
break;
}
if (0 < x)
++x;
if (x < 0)
something();
else
something_else();
return some_value;
}
Note the space between if and (
Use separate lines for each statement, the branches of an if, and the body of a for.
The { for a class and a struct in not on a separate line, but the { for a function is.
Capitalize the names of your user-defined types to distinguish them from standards-library types.
Do not capitalize function names.
If you want enforcement, use an IDE to reformat.
The C-style layout emphasizes use in expressions and grammar, whereas the C++-style emphasizes types. The use in expressions argument doesn't hold for references.
T& operator[](size_t); // OK
T &operator[](size_t); // just strange
T & operator[](size_t); // undecided
Impossible in the face of history.
Readability. Not everyone has screens and printers that make it easy to distinguish all characters. We easily confuse similarly spelled and slightly misspelled words.
int oO01lL = 6; // bad
int splunk = 7;
int splonk = 8; // bad: splunk and splonk are easily confused
???
Readability. It is really easy to overlook a statement when there is more on a line.
int x = 7; char* p = 29; // don't
int x = 7; f(x); ++x; // don't
Easy.
Readability. Minimizing confusion with the declarator syntax.
For details, see [ES.10](#Res-name-one).
void as an argument typeIt's verbose and only needed where C compatibility matters.
void f(void); // bad
void g(); // better
Even Dennis Ritchie deemed void f(void) an abomination.
You can make an argument for that abomination in C when function prototypes were rare so that banning:
int f();
f(1, 2, "weird but valid C89"); // hope that f() is defined int f(a, b, c) char* c; { /* ... */ }
would have caused major problems, but not in the 21st century and in C++.
const notationConventional notation is more familiar to more programmers. Consistency in large code bases.
const int x = 7; // OK
int const y = 9; // bad
const int *const p = nullptr; // OK, constant pointer to constant int
int const *const p = nullptr; // bad, constant pointer to constant int
We are well aware that you could claim the bad
examples more logical than the ones marked OK
,
but they also confuse more people, especially novices relying on teaching material using the far more common, conventional OK style.
As ever, remember that the aim of these naming and layout rules is consistency and that aesthetics vary immensely.
Flag const used as a suffix for a type.
This section covers answers to frequently asked questions about these guidelines.
See the top of this page. This is an open source project to maintain modern authoritative guidelines for writing C++ code using the current C++ Standard (as of this writing, C++14). The guidelines are designed to be modern, machine-enforceable wherever possible, and open to contributions and forking so that organizations can easily incorporate them into their own corporate coding guidelines.
It was announced by Bjarne Stroustrup in his CppCon 2015 opening keynote, Writing Good C++14
. See also the accompanying isocpp.org blog post, and for the rationale of the type and memory safety guidelines see Herb Sutter's follow-up CppCon 2015 talk, Writing Good C++14 ... By Default
.
The initial primary authors and maintainers are Bjarne Stroustrup and Herb Sutter, and the guidelines so far were developed with contributions from experts at CERN, Microsoft, Morgan Stanley, and several other organizations. At the time of their release, the guidelines are in a 0.6
state, and contributions are welcome. As Stroustrup said in his announcement: We need help!
See CONTRIBUTING.md. We appreciate volunteer help!
By contributing a lot first and having the consistent quality of your contributions recognized. See CONTRIBUTING.md. We appreciate volunteer help!
No. These guidelines are outside the standard. They are intended to serve the standard, and be maintained as current guidelines about how to use the current Standard C++ effectively. We aim to keep them in sync with the standard as that is evolved by the committee.
github.com/isocpp?Because isocpp is the Standard C++ Foundation; the committee's repositories are under github.com/*cplusplus*. Some neutral organization has to own the copyright and license to make it clear this is not being dominated by any one person or vendor. The natural entity is the Foundation, which exists to promote the use and up-to-date understanding of modern Standard C++ and the work of the committee. This follows the same pattern that isocpp.org did for the C++ FAQ, which was initially the work of Bjarne Stroustrup, Marshall Cline, and Herb Sutter and contributed to the open project in the same way.
No. These guidelines are about how to best use Standard C++14 (and, if you have an implementation available, the Concepts Lite Technical Specification) and write code assuming you have a modern conforming compiler.
No. These guidelines are about how to best use Standard C++14 + the Concepts Lite Technical Specification, and they limit themselves to recommending only those features.
These coding standards are written using CommonMark, and <a> HTML anchors.
We are considering the following extensions from GitHub Flavored Markdown (GFM):
Avoid other HTML tags and other extensions.
Note: We are not yet consistent with this style.
The GSL is the small set of types and aliases specified in these guidelines. As of this writing, their specification herein is too sparse; we plan to add a WG21-style interface specification to ensure that different implementations agree, and to propose as a contribution for possible standardization, subject as usual to whatever the committee decides to accept/improve/alter/reject.
No. That is just a first implementation contributed by Microsoft. Other implementations by other vendors are encouraged, as are forks of and contributions to that implementation. As of this writing one week into the public project, at least one GPLv3 open source implementation already exists. We plan to produce a WG21-style interface specification to ensure that different implementations agree.
We are reluctant to bless one particular implementation because we do not want to make people think there is only one, and inadvertently stifle parallel implementations. And if these guidelines included an actual implementation, then whoever contributed it could be mistakenly seen as too influential. We prefer to follow the long-standing approach of the committee, namely to specify interfaces, not implementations. But at the same time we want at least one implementation available; we hope for many.
Because we want to use them immediately, and because they are temporary in that we want to retire them as soon as types that fill the same needs exist in the standard library.
No. The GSL exists only to supply a few types and aliases that are not currently in the standard library. If the committee decides on standardized versions (of these or other types that fill the same need) then they can be removed from the GSL.
string_span different from the string_view in the Library Fundamentals 1 Technical Specification and C++17 Working Paper? Why not just use the committee-approved string_view?The consensus on the taxonomy of views for the C++ standard library was that view
means read-only
, and span
means read/write
. The read-only string_view was the first such component to complete the standardization process, while span and string_span are currently being considered for standardization.
owner the same as the proposed observer_ptr?No. owner owns, is an alias, and can be applied to any indirection type. The main intent of observer_ptr is to signify a non-owning pointer.
stack_array the same as the standard array?No. stack_array is guaranteed to be allocated on the stack. Although a std::array contains its storage directly inside itself, the array object can be put anywhere, including the heap.
dyn_array the same as vector or the proposed dynarray?No. dyn_array is not resizable, and is a safe way to refer to a heap-allocated fixed-size array. Unlike vector, it is intended to replace array-new[]. Unlike the dynarray that has been proposed in the committee, this does not anticipate compiler/language magic to somehow allocate it on the stack when it is a member of an object that is allocated on the stack; it simply refers to a dynamic
or heap-based array.
Expects the same as assert?No. It is a placeholder for language support for contract preconditions.
Ensures the same as assert?No. It is a placeholder for language support for contract postconditions.
This section lists recommended libraries, and explicitly recommends a few.
??? Suitable for the general guide? I think not ???
Ideally, we follow all rules in all code. Realistically, we have to deal with a lot of old code:
unusualconstraints
If we have a million lines of new code, the idea of just changing it all at once
is typically unrealistic.
Thus, we need a way of gradually modernizing a code base.
Upgrading older code to modern style can be a daunting task.
Often, the old code is both a mess (hard to understand) and working correctly (for the current range of uses).
Typically, the original programmer is not around and the test cases incomplete.
The fact that the code is a mess dramatically increases the effort needed to make any change and the risk of introducing errors.
Often, messy old code runs unnecessarily slowly because it requires outdated compilers and cannot take advantage of modern hardware.
In many cases, automated modernizer
-style tool support would be required for major upgrade efforts.
The purpose of modernizing code is to simplify adding new functionality, to ease maintenance, and to increase performance (throughput or latency), and to better utilize modern hardware.
Making code look pretty
or follow modern style
are not by themselves reasons for change.
There are risks implied by every change and costs (including the cost of lost opportunities) implied by having an outdated code base.
The cost reductions must outweigh the risks.
But how?
There is no one approach to modernizing code. How best to do it depends on the code, the pressure for updates, the backgrounds of the developers, and the available tool. Here are some (very general) ideas:
just upgrade everything.That gives the most benefits for the shortest total time. In most circumstances, it is also impossible.
span](#SS-views), cannot be done on a per-module basis.bottom upstarting with the rules we estimate will give the greatest benefits and/or the least trouble in a given code base.
Whichever way you choose, please note that the most advantages come with the highest conformance to the guidelines. The guidelines are not a random set of unrelated rules where you can randomly pick and choose with an expectation of success.
We would dearly love to hear about experience and about tools used. Modernization can be much faster, simpler, and safer when supported with analysis tools and even code transformation tools.
This section contains follow-up material on rules and sets of rules. In particular, here we present further rationale, longer examples, and discussions of alternatives.
Member variables are always initialized in the order they are declared in the class definition, so write them in that order in the constructor initialization list. Writing them in a different order just makes the code confusing because it won't run in the order you see, and that can make it hard to see order-dependent bugs.
class Employee {
string email, first, last;
public:
Employee(const char* firstName, const char* lastName);
// ...
};
Employee::Employee(const char* firstName, const char* lastName)
: first(firstName),
last(lastName),
// BAD: first and last not yet constructed
email(first + "." + last + "@acme.com")
{}
In this example, email will be constructed before first and last because it is declared first. That means its constructor will attempt to use first and last too soon -- not just before they are set to the desired values, but before they are constructed at all.
If the class definition and the constructor body are in separate files, the long-distance influence that the order of member variable declarations has over the constructor's correctness will be even harder to spot.
References:
[[Cline99]](#Cline99) §22.03-11, [[Dewhurst03]](Dewhurst03) §52-53, [[Koenig97]](#Koenig97) §4, [[Lakos96]](#Lakos96) §10.3.5, [[Meyers97]](#Meyers97) §13, [[Murray93]](#Murray93) §2.1.3, [[Sutter00]](#Sutter00) §47
=, {}, and () as initializers???
virtual behaviorduring initialization
If your design wants virtual dispatch into a derived class from a base class constructor or destructor for functions like f and g, you need other techniques, such as a post-constructor -- a separate member function the caller must invoke to complete initialization, which can safely call f and g because in member functions virtual calls behave normally. Some techniques for this are shown in the References. Here's a non-exhaustive list of options:
Here is an example of the last option:
class B {
public:
B() { /* ... */ f(); /* ... */ } // BAD: see Item 49.1
virtual void f() = 0;
// ...
};
class B {
protected:
B() { /* ... */ }
virtual void PostInitialize() // called right after construction
{ /* ... */ f(); /* ... */ } // GOOD: virtual dispatch is safe
public:
virtual void f() = 0;
template<class T>
static shared_ptr<T> Create() // interface for creating objects
{
auto p = make_shared<T>();
p->PostInitialize();
return p;
}
};
class D : public B { // some derived class
public:
void f() override { /* ... */ };
protected:
D() {}
template<class T>
friend shared_ptr<T> B::Create();
};
shared_ptr<D> p = D::Create<D>(); // creating a D object
This design requires the following discipline:
D must not expose a public constructor. Otherwise, D's users could create D objects that don't invoke PostInitialize.operator new. B can, however, override new (see Items 45 and 46).D must define a constructor with the same parameters that B selected. Defining several overloads of Create can assuage this problem, however; and the overloads can even be templated on the argument types.If the requirements above are met, the design guarantees that PostInitialize has been called for any fully constructed B-derived object. PostInitialize doesn't need to be virtual; it can, however, invoke virtual functions freely.
In summary, no post-construction technique is perfect. The worst techniques dodge the whole issue by simply asking the caller to invoke the post-constructor manually. Even the best require a different syntax for constructing objects (easy to check at compile time) and/or cooperation from derived class authors (impossible to check at compile time).
References: [[Alexandrescu01]](#Alexandrescu01) §3, [[Boost]](#Boost), [[Dewhurst03]](#Dewhurst03) §75, [[Meyers97]](#Meyers97) §46, [[Stroustrup00]](#Stroustrup00) §15.4.3, [[Taligent94]](#Taligent94)
Should destruction behave virtually? That is, should destruction through a pointer to a base class be allowed? If yes, then base's destructor must be public in order to be callable, and virtual otherwise calling it results in undefined behavior. Otherwise, it should be protected so that only derived classes can invoke it in their own destructors, and nonvirtual since it doesn't need to behave virtually virtual.
The common case for a base class is that it's intended to have publicly derived classes, and so calling code is just about sure to use something like a shared_ptr<base>:
class Base {
public:
~Base(); // BAD, not virtual
virtual ~Base(); // GOOD
// ...
};
class Derived : public Base { /* ... */ };
{
unique_ptr<Base> pb = make_unique<Derived>();
// ...
} // ~pb invokes correct destructor only when ~Base is virtual
In rarer cases, such as policy classes, the class is used as a base class for convenience, not for polymorphic behavior. It is recommended to make those destructors protected and nonvirtual:
class My_policy {
public:
virtual ~My_policy(); // BAD, public and virtual
protected:
~My_policy(); // GOOD
// ...
};
template<class Policy>
class customizable : Policy { /* ... */ }; // note: private inheritance
This simple guideline illustrates a subtle issue and reflects modern uses of inheritance and object-oriented design principles.
For a base class Base, calling code might try to destroy derived objects through pointers to Base, such as when using a unique_ptr<Base>. If Base's destructor is public and nonvirtual (the default), it can be accidentally called on a pointer that actually points to a derived object, in which case the behavior of the attempted deletion is undefined. This state of affairs has led older coding standards to impose a blanket requirement that all base class destructors must be virtual. This is overkill (even if it is the common case); instead, the rule should be to make base class destructors virtual if and only if they are public.
To write a base class is to define an abstraction (see Items 35 through 37). Recall that for each member function participating in that abstraction, you need to decide:
Base or else be a hidden internal implementation detail.As described in Item 39, for a normal member function, the choice is between allowing it to be called via a pointer to Base nonvirtually (but possibly with virtual behavior if it invokes virtual functions, such as in the NVI or Template Method patterns), virtually, or not at all. The NVI pattern is a technique to avoid public virtual functions.
Destruction can be viewed as just another operation, albeit with special semantics that make nonvirtual calls dangerous or wrong. For a base class destructor, therefore, the choice is between allowing it to be called via a pointer to Base virtually or not at all; nonvirtually
is not an option. Hence, a base class destructor is virtual if it can be called (i.e., is public), and nonvirtual otherwise.
Note that the NVI pattern cannot be applied to the destructor because constructors and destructors cannot make deep virtual calls. (See Items 39 and 55.)
Corollary: When writing a base class, always write a destructor explicitly, because the implicitly generated one is public and nonvirtual. You can always =default the implementation if the default body is fine and you're just writing the function to give it the proper visibility and virtuality.
Some component architectures (e.g., COM and CORBA) don't use a standard deletion mechanism, and foster different protocols for object disposal. Follow the local patterns and idioms, and adapt this guideline as appropriate.
Consider also this rare case:
B is both a base class and a concrete class that can be instantiated by itself, and so the destructor must be public for B objects to be created and destroyed.B also has no virtual functions and is not meant to be used polymorphically, and so although the destructor is public it does not need to be virtual.Then, even though the destructor has to be public, there can be great pressure to not make it virtual because as the first virtual function it would incur all the run-time type overhead when the added functionality should never be needed.
In this rare case, you could make the destructor public and nonvirtual but clearly document that further-derived objects must not be used polymorphically as B's. This is what was done with std::unary_function.
In general, however, avoid concrete base classes (see Item 35). For example, unary_function is a bundle-of-typedefs that was never intended to be instantiated standalone. It really makes no sense to give it a public destructor; a better design would be to follow this Item's advice and give it a protected nonvirtual destructor.
References: [[C++CS]](#C++CS) Item 50, [[Cargill92]](#Cargill92) pp. 77-79, 207, [[Cline99]](#Cline99) §21.06, 21.12-13, [[Henricson97]](#Henricson97) pp. 110-114, [[Koenig97]](#Koenig97) Chapters 4, 11, [[Meyers97]](#Meyers97) §14, [[Stroustrup00]](#Stroustrup00) §12.4.2, [[Sutter02]](#Sutter02) §27, [[Sutter04]](#Sutter04) §18
???
Never allow an error to be reported from a destructor, a resource deallocation function (e.g., operator delete), or a swap function using throw. It is nearly impossible to write useful code if these operations can fail, and even if something does go wrong it nearly never makes any sense to retry. Specifically, types whose destructors may throw an exception are flatly forbidden from use with the C++ standard library. Most destructors are now implicitly noexcept by default.
class Nefarious {
public:
Nefarious() { /* code that could throw */ } // ok
~Nefarious() { /* code that could throw */ } // BAD, should not throw
// ...
};
Nefarious objects are hard to use safely even as local variables:
void test(string& s)
{
Nefarious n; // trouble brewing
string copy = s; // copy the string
} // destroy copy and then n
Here, copying s could throw, and if that throws and if n's destructor then also throws, the program will exit via std::terminate because two exceptions can't be propagated simultaneously.
Classes with Nefarious members or bases are also hard to use safely, because their destructors must invoke Nefarious' destructor, and are similarly poisoned by its poor behavior:
class Innocent_bystander {
Nefarious member; // oops, poisons the enclosing class's destructor
// ...
};
void test(string& s)
{
Innocent_bystander i; // more trouble brewing
string copy2 = s; // copy the string
} // destroy copy and then i
Here, if constructing copy2 throws, we have the same problem because i's destructor now also can throw, and if so we'll invoke std::terminate.
You can't reliably create global or static Nefarious objects either:
static Nefarious n; // oops, any destructor exception can't be caught
You can't reliably create arrays of Nefarious:
void test()
{
std::array<Nefarious, 10> arr; // this line can std::terminate(!)
}
The behavior of arrays is undefined in the presence of destructors that throw because there is no reasonable rollback behavior that could ever be devised. Just think: What code can the compiler generate for constructing an arr where, if the fourth object's constructor throws, the code has to give up and in its cleanup mode tries to call the destructors of the already-constructed objects ... and one or more of those destructors throws? There is no satisfactory answer.
You can't use Nefarious objects in standard containers:
std::vector<Nefarious> vec(10); // this line can std::terminate()
The standard library forbids all destructors used with it from throwing. You can't store Nefarious objects in standard containers or use them with any other part of the standard library.
These are key functions that must not fail because they are necessary for the two key operations in transactional programming: to back out work if problems are encountered during processing, and to commit work if no problems occur. If there's no way to safely back out using no-fail operations, then no-fail rollback is impossible to implement. If there's no way to safely commit state changes using a no-fail operation (notably, but not limited to, swap), then no-fail commit is impossible to implement.
Consider the following advice and requirements found in the C++ Standard:
If a destructor called during stack unwinding exits with an exception, terminate is called (15.5.1). So destructors should generally catch exceptions and not let them propagate out of the destructor. --[[C++03]](#C++03) §15.2(3)
No destructor operation defined in the C++ Standard Library (including the destructor of any type that is used to instantiate a standard library template) will throw an exception. --[[C++03]](#C++03) §17.4.4.8(3)
Deallocation functions, including specifically overloaded operator delete and operator delete[], fall into the same category, because they too are used during cleanup in general, and during exception handling in particular, to back out of partial work that needs to be undone.
Besides destructors and deallocation functions, common error-safety techniques rely also on swap operations never failing -- in this case, not because they are used to implement a guaranteed rollback, but because they are used to implement a guaranteed commit. For example, here is an idiomatic implementation of operator= for a type T that performs copy construction followed by a call to a no-fail swap:
T& T::operator=(const T& other) {
auto temp = other;
swap(temp);
}
(See also Item 56. ???)
Fortunately, when releasing a resource, the scope for failure is definitely smaller. If using exceptions as the error reporting mechanism, make sure such functions handle all exceptions and other errors that their internal processing might generate. (For exceptions, simply wrap everything sensitive that your destructor does in a try/catch(...) block.) This is particularly important because a destructor might be called in a crisis situation, such as failure to allocate a system resource (e.g., memory, files, locks, ports, windows, or other system objects).
When using exceptions as your error handling mechanism, always document this behavior by declaring these functions noexcept. (See Item 75.)
References: [[C++CS]](#C++CS) Item 51; [[C++03]](#C++03) §15.2(3), §17.4.4.8(3), [[Meyers96]](#Meyers96) §11, [[Stroustrup00]](#Stroustrup00) §14.4.7, §E.2-4, [[Sutter00]](#Sutter00) §8, §16, [[Sutter02]](#Sutter02) §18-19
???
If you define a copy constructor, you must also define a copy assignment operator.
If you define a move constructor, you must also define a move assignment operator.
class X {
// ...
public:
X(const X&) { /* stuff */ }
// BAD: failed to also define a copy assignment operator
X(x&&) { /* stuff */ }
// BAD: failed to also define a move assignment operator
};
X x1;
X x2 = x1; // ok
x2 = x1; // pitfall: either fails to compile, or does something suspicious
If you define a destructor, you should not use the compiler-generated copy or move operation; you probably need to define or suppress copy and/or move.
class X {
HANDLE hnd;
// ...
public:
~X() { /* custom stuff, such as closing hnd */ }
// suspicious: no mention of copying or moving -- what happens to hnd?
};
X x1;
X x2 = x1; // pitfall: either fails to compile, or does something suspicious
x2 = x1; // pitfall: either fails to compile, or does something suspicious
If you define copying, and any base or member has a type that defines a move operation, you should also define a move operation.
class X {
string s; // defines more efficient move operations
// ... other data members ...
public:
X(const X&) { /* stuff */ }
X& operator=(const X&) { /* stuff */ }
// BAD: failed to also define a move construction and move assignment
// (why wasn't the custom "stuff" repeated here?)
};
X test()
{
X local;
// ...
return local; // pitfall: will be inefficient and/or do the wrong thing
}
If you define any of the copy constructor, copy assignment operator, or destructor, you probably should define the others.
If you need to define any of these five functions, it means you need it to do more than its default behavior -- and the five are asymmetrically interrelated. Here's how:
specialwork, probably so should the other because the two functions should have similar effects. (See Item 53, which expands on this point in isolation.)
specialwork in the copy constructor is to allocate or duplicate some resource (e.g., memory, file, socket), you need to deallocate it in the destructor.
In many cases, holding properly encapsulated resources using RAII owning
objects can eliminate the need to write these operations yourself. (See Item 13.)
Prefer compiler-generated (including =default) special members; only these can be classified as trivial
, and at least one major standard library vendor heavily optimizes for classes having trivial special members. This is likely to become common practice.
Exceptions: When any of the special functions are declared only to make them nonpublic or virtual, but without special semantics, it doesn't imply that the others are needed. In rare cases, classes that have members of strange types (such as reference members) are an exception because they have peculiar copy semantics. In a class holding a reference, you likely need to write the copy constructor and the assignment operator, but the default destructor already does the right thing. (Note that using a reference member is almost always wrong.)
References: [[C++CS]](#C++CS) Item 52; [[Cline99]](#Cline99) §30.01-14, [[Koenig97]](#Koenig97) §4, [[Stroustrup00]](#Stroustrup00) §5.5, §10.4, [[SuttHysl04b]](#SuttHysl04b)
Resource management rule summary:
rawpointer or reference is never a resource handle](#Cr-raw)
Prevent leaks. Leaks can lead to performance degradation, mysterious error, system crashes, and security violations.
Alternative formulation: Have every resource represented as an object of some class managing its lifetime.
template<class T>
class Vector {
// ...
private:
T* elem; // sz elements on the free store, owned by the class object
int sz;
};
This class is a resource handle. It manages the lifetime of the Ts. To do so, Vector must define or delete [the set of special operations](???) (constructors, a destructor, etc.).
??? "odd" non-memory resource ???
The basic technique for preventing leaks is to have every resource owned by a resource handle with a suitable destructor. A checker can find naked `new`s
. Given a list of C-style allocation functions (e.g., fopen()), a checker can also find uses that are not managed by a resource handle. In general, naked pointers
can be viewed with suspicion, flagged, and/or analyzed. A complete list of resources cannot be generated without human input (the definition of a resource
is necessarily too general), but a tool can be parameterized
with a resource list.
That would be a leak.
void f(int i)
{
FILE* f = fopen("a file", "r");
ifstream is { "another file" };
// ...
if (i == 0) return;
// ...
fclose(f);
}
If i == 0 the file handle for a file is leaked. On the other hand, the ifstream for another file will correctly close its file (upon destruction). If you must use an explicit pointer, rather than a resource handle with specific semantics, use a unique_ptr or a shared_ptr with a custom deleter:
void f(int i)
{
unique_ptr<FILE, int(*)(FILE*)> f(fopen("a file", "r"), fclose);
// ...
if (i == 0) return;
// ...
}
Better:
void f(int i)
{
ifstream input {"a file"};
// ...
if (i == 0) return;
// ...
}
A checker must consider all naked pointers
suspicious.
A checker probably must rely on a human-provided list of resources.
For starters, we know about the standard-library containers, string, and smart pointers.
The use of span and string_span should help a lot (they are not resource handles).
rawpointer or reference is never a resource handle
To be able to distinguish owners from views.
This is independent of how you spell
pointer: T*, T&, Ptr<T> and Range<T> are not owners.
To avoid extremely hard-to-find errors. Dereferencing such a pointer is undefined behavior and could lead to violations of the type system.
string* bad() // really bad
{
vector<string> v = { "This", "will", "cause", "trouble", "!" };
// leaking a pointer into a destroyed member of a destroyed object (v)
return &v[0];
}
void use()
{
string* p = bad();
vector<int> xx = {7, 8, 9};
// undefined behavior: x may not be the string "This"
string x = *p;
// undefined behavior: we don't know what (if anything) is allocated a location p
*p = "Evil!";
}
The strings of v are destroyed upon exit from bad() and so is v itself. The returned pointer points to unallocated memory on the free store. This memory (pointed into by p) may have been reallocated by the time *p is executed. There may be no string to read and a write through p could easily corrupt objects of unrelated types.
Most compilers already warn about simple cases and has the information to do more. Consider any pointer returned from a function suspect. Use containers, resource handles, and views (e.g., span known not to be resource handles) to lower the number of cases to be examined. For starters, consider every class with a destructor as resource handle.
To provide statically type-safe manipulation of elements.
template<typename T> class Vector {
// ...
T* elem; // point to sz elements of type T
int sz;
};
To simplify code and eliminate a need for explicit memory management. To bring an object into a surrounding scope, thereby extending its lifetime. See also [F.20, the general item about out
output values](#Rf-out).
vector<int> get_large_vector()
{
return ...;
}
auto v = get_large_vector(); // return by value is ok, most modern compilers will do copy elision
See the Exceptions in [F.20](#Rf-out).
Check for pointers and references returned from functions and see if they are assigned to resource handles (e.g., to a unique_ptr).
To provide complete control of the lifetime of the resource. To provide a coherent set of operations on the resource.
??? Messing with pointers
If all members are resource handles, rely on the default special operations where possible.
template<typename T> struct Named {
string name;
T value;
};
Now Named has a default constructor, a destructor, and efficient copy and move operations, provided T has.
In general, a tool cannot know if a class is a resource handle. However, if a class has some of [the default operations](#SS-ctor), it should have all, and if a class has a member that is a resource handle, it should be considered as resource handle.
It is common to need an initial set of elements.
template<typename T> class Vector {
public:
Vector(std::initializer_list<T>);
// ...
};
Vector<string> vs { "Nygaard", "Ritchie" };
When is a class a container? ???
A relatively informal definition of terms used in the guidelines (based of the glossary in Programming: Principles and Practice using C++)
constructs) an object. Typically a constructor establishes an invariant and often acquires resources needed for an object to be used (which are then typically released by a destructor).
just in case.
twelve.
empty.See also copy.
Resource Acquisition Is Initialization) a basic technique for resource management based on scopes.
operating system, that is, the fundamental execution environment and tools for a computer.
This is our to-do list. Eventually, the entries will become rules or parts of rules. Alternatively, we will decide that no change is needed and delete the entry.
std::literals::*_literals)?void* should have their toes set on fire. That one has been a personal favorite of mine for a number of years. :)const-ness wherever possible: member functions, variables and (yippee) const_iteratorsauto(size) vs. {initializers} vs. {Extent{size}}std::function) vs. CRTP/static? YES Perhaps even vs. tag dispatch?foo() calling private/protected do_foo())? Not a new thing, seeing as locales/streams use it, but it seems to be under-emphasized.std::bind, Stephen T. Lavavej criticizes it so much I'm starting to wonder if it is indeed going to fade away in future. Should lambdas be recommended instead?p = (s1 + s2).c_str();pointer/iterator invalidation leading to dangling pointers:
void bad()
{
int* p = new int[700];
int* q = &p[7];
delete p;
vector<int> v(700);
int* q2 = &v[7];
v.resize(900);
// ... use q and q2 ...
}
LSP
private inheritance vs/and membership
avoid static class members variables (race conditions, almost-global variables)
Use RAII lock guards (lock_guard, unique_lock, shared_lock), never call mutex.lock and mutex.unlock directly (RAII)
Prefer non-recursive locks (often used to work around bad reasoning, overhead)
Join your threads! (because of std::terminate in destructor if not joined or detached ... is there a good reason to detach threads?) -- ??? could support library provide a RAII wrapper for std::thread?
If two or more mutexes must be acquired at the same time, use std::lock (or another deadlock avoidance algorithm?)
When using a condition_variable, always protect the condition by a mutex (atomic bool whose value is set outside of the mutex is wrong!), and use the same mutex for the condition variable itself.
Never use atomic_compare_exchange_strong with std::atomic<user-defined-struct> (differences in padding matter, while compare_exchange_weak in a loop converges to stable padding)
individual shared_future objects are not thread-safe: two threads cannot wait on the same shared_future object (they can wait on copies of a shared_future that refer to the same shared state)
individual shared_ptr objects are not thread-safe: different threads can call non-const member functions on different shared_ptrs that refer to the same shared object, but one thread cannot call a non-const member function of a shared_ptr object while another thread accesses that same shared_ptr object (if you need that, consider atomic_shared_ptr instead)
rules for arithmetic
Collecting Shared Objects(C/C++ Users Journal, 22(8), August 2004).